Level Of Intercultural Sensitivity Research Articles

Intercultural sensitivity in Chilean healthcare profession students

Each culture has unique health care related values, habits, perceptions, expectations, norms, etc., that makes cultural competence an important attribute to be developed by healthcare professionals, to ensure they provide effective treatment. Intercultural sensitivity (IS) is the affective dimension of cultural competence. The objective of this study is to explore the self-perceived level of IS in first and last year students of three health sciences professions (i.e., Dentistry, Medicine, and Nursing) at the Universidad de la Frontera, Temuco, Chile. This study adopted a cross-sectional design and a group comparison (e.g., year of study). 312 students completed the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS). Findings showed that overall ISS scores ranged from 1.83 to 4.94, with a mean score of 4.11 (s.d. 0.43). Group comparison between first and final year students showed statistically significant differences (4.18 vs. 4.00; p < 0.001). Medical and nursing students had a significantly higher overall mean IS score compared to dental students (4.21 and 4.16, respectively vs. 4.02; p < 0.01). There were also significant differences between three factors (interaction engagement; interaction confidence; and interaction enjoyment) by healthcare profession. These findings allow for discussion of the need for explicit incorporation and development of cultural competence in on health care professional curricula. Longitudinal research is needed to explore how IS changes over time, along with generating qualitative data from the student populations IS experiences and exposure.

Investigation of The Relationship Between International Students’ Levels of Cultural Intelligence and Their Intercultural Sensitivity and Acculturation

The aim of the present research is to investigate the relation between the cultural intelligence levels of international students and their acculturation and intercultural sensitivity levels. The research was conducted with a total of 353 female and 282 male participants studying at Bursa Uludağ University. The participants were students from different countries and from different ethnic origins. Scales for measuring intercultural sensitivity, cultural intelligence, and acculturation, as well as a personal information form, were employed in the research, which used a correlational survey model inside a quantitative research design. In the analysis of the data, confirmatory factor analysis was utilized to analyze the construct validity of the scales, and to examine the reliability, the Cronbach alpha internal consistency coefficients were calculated and interpreted. While investigating the relationships between the scores obtained from the scales in the study, the Spearman-Brown correlation coefficient was calculated and regression analysis was implemented when examining the predictive status between the scores. According to the results of the current research, there was a low-level positive relationship between international students' levels of cultural intelligence and acculturation and a moderately positive relationship between their levels of cultural intelligence and intercultural sensitivity.

Developing Intercultural Competence via Virtual Exchange Programs: The Case of Moroccan University Students

This article presents the results of a study conducted at the School of Law and Economics of Casablanca. The study explores the effect of intercultural interventions in developing the learners’ intercultural competence. Two groups of informants representing two different master programs participated in this study. While the control group (29) attended only a traditional classroom course on Intercultural Awareness in Business, the treatment group (37) took the same class and also participated in a virtual exchange program that counted for 15% of their final grades. The study used the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS) to investigate the developmental patterns of the learners’ intercultural competence following the two intercultural interventions. The study sought to investigate how virtual exchange programs affected participants' intercultural competence and sensitivity in comparison to those who had a traditional classroom experience. The results exhibited significantly elevated levels of intercultural sensitivity in the treatment group compared to the control group, indicating that the treatment group exhibited markedly significant levels. The findings provide support for the recommendation to implement virtual exchange programs as a practical method to improve employability skills and global awareness among university students. Consequently, these findings substantiate the recommendation to incorporate virtual exchange programs as an efficacious approach for enhancing employability skills and fostering global awareness within formal academic settings, particularly among university students.

Cultural Values and Intercultural Sensitivity among College of Teacher Education Students

Most university and college students are susceptible to prejudice, stereotype, or even discrimination towards individuals or groups of people from different cultures. This confluence of concerns has occurred both within and outside the educational sector. As a result of this alarming predicament, this study aims to determines the relationship between cultural values and intercultural sensitivity among College of Teacher Education students officially enrolled for the Academic Year 2022–2023 in the University of Mindanao in Matina, Davao City. With a total population of 2,054 students in the College of Teacher Education program, the researchers obtained a total of 324 respondents, which was calculated using the Raosoft sample size calculator. This study used convenience sampling and a descriptive correlational research design. The Mean, Standard Deviation, and Pearson Product Correlation were utilized as statistical techniques. The overall findings show that the level of cultural values is high, with a mean score of 4.46 and a standard deviation of .38, while the level of intercultural sensitivity is also high, with a mean score of 4.44 and a standard deviation of .40. This indicates that the cultural values and intercultural sensitivity among undergraduate teachers at the University of Mindanao are highly manifested. Furthermore, the p-value of .000, states that there is a significant relationship between cultural values and intercultural sensitivity. The r-value of .622* also indicates a moderately positive (direct) correlation between cultural values and intercultural sensitivity. Finally, the study's overall results affirm that cultural values have a significant (direct) relationship with the intercultural sensitivity of the College of Teachers Education students at the University of Mindanao. It concludes that students better understand and appreciate cultural diversity. In this sense, future educators have practical intercultural communication skills and collaboration among people of diverse cultural backgrounds. Thus, it creates an inclusive and equitable environment for civically competent individuals in a pluralistic society.

An Investigation of the Intercultural Sensitivity Levels of Summer Work and Travel Programme Students

A variety of programmes and schemes make travel more affordable and attractive for young people. They provide opportunities to experience intercultural communication first-hand to those who could not have imagined without being involved in such institutionalized schemes. One such programme is Work &amp; Travel which is offered in the USA. Young people who gain hands-on experience in the USA can potentially gain intercultural skills. A few studies have focused on to what extent this experience could live up to the expectations (1 reference). There is a lack of research on the impact of Summer Work and Travel (SWT) participants and the factors affecting their levels of intercultural sensitivity, especially in the Turkish context. Therefore, the current study aims to measure the intercultural sensitivity (IS) of the SWT participants from Türkiye and the factors which impact their level of IS. The sequential mixed method was used, and the quantitative data was first gathered via a five-point Likert scale with 129 participants. Semi-structured interviews with ten volunteering participants followed the quantitative data collection phase. It was concluded from the data analysis that the participants in the SWT experience had a high level of IS. While some participants had less confidence due to their insufficient language proficiency, they reported that they became more confident as they improved their language skills and adapted to the intercultural environment. The researchers also concluded that the high IS might have resulted from the participants’ high level of daily interaction with people from different cultures and at the social events they attended.

Investigation the relationship between xenophobic attitude and intercultural sensitivity level in nurses

ObjectiveThe level of intercultural sensitivity is important for nurses to approach the individual's culture in care and treatment without prejudice. In this study, it was aimed to determine the effect of nurses' intercultural sensitivity level on xenophobic attitude. MethodsThis quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted at Van Training and Research Hospital between January and June 2022. The Introductory Information Form, the Xenophobia Scale, and the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale were used to collect the research data. SPSS-25 package program and R programming language 4.1.3 are used. ResultsThis study was conducted with 235 nurses. According to the findings obtained in our study, the regression model determine the effect of intercultural sensitivity on xenophobia level was found to be F(1,233) = 69.857, p = 0.001, and 23.1 % (R2 = 0.231) of the variance in the dependent variable was explained by the independent variable. Intercultural sensitivity has a negative and significant effect on the level of xenophobia (β = −0.480; t (233) = −8.358, p = 0.001). When comparing the performance of all variables with machine learning algorithms for the prediction model, the best performing algorithm was found to be Random Forest (RF). The contributions of these variables to the model were calculated with Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) values. The most important variables that should be included in the model to predict the xenophobia variable are the respect for cultural differences sub-dimension and intercultural sensitivity variables. ConclusionIt was determined that as the level of intercultural sensitivity of the nurses increased, their xenophobic attitudes decreased. Longitudinal studies on xenophobic attitude in nurses are recommended. It is recommended to make predictions with different machine learning models.

Validating the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale in the Hungarian University Context

Understanding the level of intercultural sensitivity among employees is crucial for managers to identify potential issues and develop strategies, particularly in intercultural contexts. Thus, the main aim of this study is to validate Chen and Starosta’s (2000) Intercultural Sensitivity Scale in the Hungarian context. To that end, the authors distributed the 24item questionnaire to 361 Hungarian university students at a private business school, examining the scale’s five factors, namely Interaction Engagement, Respect for Cultural Differences, Interaction Confidence, Interaction Enjoyment, and Interaction Attentiveness. A confirmatory factor analysis was then carried out using SPSS AMOS 26.0.0, which indicated that the fivefactor model did not fully align with the data from the Hungarian cohort. The findings of this study demonstrated a lack of independence among the five factors, highlighting the complexity of measuring intercultural sensitivity in varying cultural contexts. To improve the validity and reliability of the instrument and better assess intercultural sensitivity among Hungarian populations, major changes to the items of the questionnaire are suggested.

YÜKSEK ÖĞRETİMDE TURİZM ÖĞRENCİLERİNİN KÜLTÜRLERARASI DUYARLILIK DERECELERİNİN İNCELENMESİ

The aim of this study was to determine the intercultural sensitivity level of associate degree students studying Cooking and Tourism and Hotel Management in a state university in Turkey. The study also investigated the students’ intercultural sensitivity level according to some variables such as gender, age, major and grade. For this purpose, the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (Chen &amp; Starosta, 2000) which was adapted into Turkish by Öğüt and Olkun (2018) was conducted as a quantitative data collecting instrument in order to measure the students’ intercultural sensitivity level. The scale had also a separate part including students’ demographic information. The data were collected through a face- to-face survey in spring term in 2022. They were firstly coded and then analyzed through SPSS 20. Additionally, t-test and one-way ANOVA tests were conducted. The results of the study indicated that students’ respect for cultural differences and interaction enjoyment level was found to be very high while interaction attentiveness, interaction engagement and interaction confidence levels were high. Moreover, it appeared that such variables as gender, age, major and grade did not influence students’ intercultural sensitivity perceptions.

Predisposing Factors of Intercultural Sensitivity Among Nursing Students: A Predictive Correlational Design.

Intercultural sensitivity in health care improves health care quality due to effective communication, intervention, and increased satisfaction. The present study aimed to compare the intercultural sensitivity of undergraduate nursing students in two different countries and identify predisposing factors of intercultural sensitivity. A predictive correlational study was conducted with 980 undergraduate nursing students at a university in Turkey and the United States. A questionnaire and the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale were used for data collection. Multiple linear regression revealed that the country in which nursing students were studying, and speaking a second language were found as significant predictors of intercultural sensitivity in the current study. The findings of the two-way variance analysis indicated that the interaction effect between nursing students in two schools and sociodemographic variables was not statistically significant (p > .05). Nursing students from both universities presented a moderate level of intercultural sensitivity. This level is low compared with previous results reported in the literature. The study findings may help faculty administrators make new arrangements in the nursing curriculum and contribute to providing equal, and non-discriminatory health services to people. Intercultural education programs within the curriculum should be offered as independent courses and/or integrated within courses to develop culturally competent knowledge, awareness, and skills throughout undergraduate nursing education.

The Relationship Between Time Spent Abroad and Intercultural Sensitivity

In today’s globalised business landscape, characterised by a proliferation of multinational corporations employing culturally diverse workforces, intercultural sensitivity is important in facilitating collaboration. Regarding higher education, it has been found that intercultural sensitivity can be increased through time spent abroad, although the results have been shown to vary depending on the specific context. As the impact of time spent abroad on intercultural sensitivity has yet to be examined in the Hungarian context, this study aimed to investigate whether there were significant differences in various components of intercultural sensitivity between Hungarian business students who had spent varying periods abroad. A total of 270 Hungarian business students from a leading Hungarian business university, aged 18-26, completed the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS). The focus was on intercultural sensitivity levels between students who had spent less than one month abroad and those who had spent more than one month abroad. The findings indicated that students who spent more time abroad showed improved confidence in intercultural interactions; however, significant differences for other components of the ISS were not observed. Although the results are specific to the Hungarian or Central European context, the findings provide insight for institutions seeking to design effective exchange programs that promote intercultural competence among students, preparing them for success in the global business environment.

Intercultural Competence and Intercultural Sensitivity Levels of EFL Preparatory Students: Insights from a Turkish Context

Effective communication between people with different emotional, cognitive, and behavioral perspectives requires skill in handling communication. Learning intercultural communication skills (IC), which are more important than language proficiency and communicative competence, is necessary for teaching foreign languages as English becomes a global language. Effective communication in English language classes, thus, requires multicultural sensitivity and competency. Intercultural competence (IC) is crucial in a globalized society where people must behave ethically and competently in cross-cultural relationships. As societies strive toward collective goals and establish lasting social, cultural, and economic connections with diverse cultural groups, intercultural sensitivity is gaining importance at all educational levels, particularly for foreign language learners. Many students lack intercultural knowledge, abilities, and mindsets. This study examines how EFL preparatory students perceive their intercultural sensitivity and competencies, whether there exists a statistically significant relationship between these two variables, and whether these variables show a difference regarding the participants’ demographics. The study adopted a descriptive methodology by using a correlational survey method. Data were collected from EFL preparatory students at a state university in western Türkiye by using the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale and the Intercultural Competence Scale (ICS). Convenience sampling technique was used to collect data. T-test, Pearson correlation, and Spearman's Rho tests were used to calculate frequency and percentages with SPSS program, version 22. The results showed that EFL preparatory students demonstrated a high level of IS and IC levels; however, the participants’ IS and IC levels did not significantly differ by their demographics. Educational implications were suggested in the light of the literature.

EFL Teachers’ Perceptions Towards Multicultural Classrooms: The Role of Intercultural Sensitivity in Developing Intercultural Communicative Competence

Individuals are increasingly exposed to diverse cultures in their work, education, and social life. In multicultural classrooms, intercultural sensitivity (IS) and inter cultural communicative competence (ICC) are relevant concepts that allow for an understanding of teachers’ perceptions as they interact with learners from other cultures. However, English as a Foreign Language (EFL) research has not thoroughly addressed the implications of teachers’ attitudes and contextual phenomena in the process of promoting interaction and integration in a multicultural setting. Therefore, the main goals of this mixed-methods study were to explore the relationship between the attitudes of 61 EFL Chilean teachers towards the multicultural EFL classroom and their intercultural sensitivity perceptions, as well as assess how their intercultural sensitivity influenced their perceived ICC in that setting. The teachers completed the Teacher Multicultural Attitude Survey (TMAS) and the intercultural sensitivity scale (ISS), which was followed by semi-structured interviews with eight teachers. Results revealed high levels of multicultural awareness and intercultural sensitivity displayed by the teachers, but qualitative findings suggested that even though teachers may display high awareness and empathy towards cultural diversity, they may not know how to tackle ICC in the classroom and lack a principled approach to effectively communicate with learners from other cultures. Pedagogical implications in the EFL classroom are also discussed.

Chinese EFL Learners’ Pragmatic Competence and Intercultural Sensitivity

The objective of College English teaching is to develop students' comprehensive communicative competence, including pragmatic competence and intercultural sensitivity. Through the quantitative-descriptive research method, the study explored pragmatic competence and intercultural sensitivity of Chinese EFL learners and tested whether the respondents’ pragmatic competence and intercultural sensitivity are significantly correlated with each other. The results reveals that Chinese EFL learners were at the intermediate level of overall pragmatic competence and intercultural sensitivity. The correlations between respondents’ pragmatic competence and intercultural sensitivity were highly significant. The results of the study may give enlightenment on the cultivation of Chinese EFL learners’ communicative competence.

The effect of intercultural sensitivity and ethnocentrism on health tourism awareness level in nurses: Analysis with machine learning approach

PurposeIn this study, the effects of intercultural sensitivity and ethnocentrism on health tourism awareness levels in nurses were examined. Design and methodsThis quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted in Turkey between November 2022 and March 2023. Intercultural sensitivity scale, ethnocentrism scale, and health tourism awareness scale were used to collect the data. R programming language 4.1.3, G*Power 3.1 and SPSS-22 program were used in the analysis of the study. ResultsThis study was conducted with 386 nurses. Intercultural sensitivity has a positive and significant effect on health tourism awareness levels (β = 0.141; t(384) = 2.784, p = 0.006). Ethnocentrism has a positive and significant effect on health tourism awareness levels (β = 0.184; t(384) = 3.659, p = 0.001). Random Forest regression was found to be the best performing algorithm among the machine learning algorithms for predicting the Health Tourism Awareness variable. Looking at the contributions of the variables to the model, according to the SHAP value (Shapley Additive Explanations), it was seen that the most important variable that should be in the model to predict the health tourism awareness variable is the ethnocentrism variable. ConclusionIt was determined that as the level of intercultural sensitivity and ethnocentrism of nurses increased, their awareness of health tourism increased. Longitudinal studies on health tourism awareness in nurses are recommended.

Five-factor personality traits as predictors of intercultural sensitivity among Turkish preservice teachers

The aim of this study is to examine the relationships between the five-factor personality traits and intercultural sensitivity among Turkish preservice teachers. The participants of this study were 1218 college students enrolled at a university located in the central Black Sea Region of Türkiye. The participants were selected using a convenience sampling method. The preservice teachers responded to a survey comprising the Personal Information Form, Intercultural Sensitivity Scale, and Quick Big Five Personality Scale. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson product-moment correlation analysis, multiple linear regression analysis, and relative importance analysis. The results of this study showed that preservice teachers with stronger personality traits of agreeableness, extraversion, emotional stability, and openness to new experiences tend to have higher levels of intercultural sensitivity. Moreover, results of relative importance analyses revealed that agreeableness is the most important predictor of intercultural sensitivity among preservice teachers whereas emotional stability was found to be the least important predictor. The findings of this study can help to determine personality traits related to intercultural sensitivity among preservice teachers.

Enhancing intercultural sensitivity in Japanese nursing students through international online nursing courses: A quasi-experimental study

BackgroundGlobalization has highlighted the importance of being competent in communicating with people of various cultural backgrounds. PurposeTo evaluate the effect of international courses for nursing students through online education in terms of intercultural sensitivity and perceived English proficiency. DesignA one-group pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design with an online self-reported questionnaire was conducted. Participants and SettingsParticipants were second-, third-, and fourth-year nursing students at a medical university in Tokyo in the spring term of 2021. MethodMeasurements were performed before and after the international nursing courses, which consisted of 1) nursing communication English, taught by native English instructors to second- and third-year students; and 2) international health nursing, taught by overseas-experienced faculty members to fourth-year students. Furthermore, there is an elective Collaborative Online International Learning course, where students discuss, collaborate, and complete common assignments with students from a university in the United States. Intercultural sensitivity was measured using the Japanese version of the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale. The pre- and post-test intercultural sensitivity were compared using a paired t-test. Content analysis was employed to analyze the open-ended questions. ResultsA total of 104 students' data were analyzed. Students' intercultural sensitivity mean improved significantly from 79.88 ± 8.47 (pre) to 83.04 ± 8.63 (post). Participants in the elective course (n = 7) showed significantly higher intercultural sensitivity levels than non-participants. The self-evaluated English proficiency of second- and third-year students who took English courses significantly improved after the courses. Themes extracted by elective course participants revealed students' perceptions toward learning about diverse cultures, resilience, and intercultural communication skills, which they can utilize for nursing practice in the future. ConclusionTaking international nursing courses can increase nursing students' intercultural sensitivity. Universities are encouraged to provide international nursing courses to help enhance their cultural sensitivity and competency for their future nursing careers.

The Difficulties Experienced by Nurses Working in A Tertiary Hospital in Turkey while Providing Health Care to Immigrant and Refugee Patients and Intercultural Sensitivity

Objective: This research was carried out to evaluate the difficulties experienced by nurses during the delivery of health care to immigrant and refugee patients and their intercultural sensitivity. Methods: The descriptive-cross-sectional study was conducted with 132 nurses. In the study, "socio-demographic questions, questions about the difficulties experienced while caring for immigrant/refugee patients" and "Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS)" were applied. Mean ± standard deviation, frequency, and percentage values, Kruskal Wallis, Mann Whitney-U test, and Spearman correlation analysis were used in the data analysis. The statistical significance level was accepted as p&amp;lt;0.05. Results: It was found that 65.2% of the nurses had no desire to care for migrant or refugee patients, 87.9% had difficulties while giving care, and 96.2% were found to be hindered by language differences while caring for patients. The mean total score of the ISS scale was determined as 61.58±9.96. When the ISS scale was evaluated in terms of the total score, the mean scores of those aged &amp;gt;30 years (p=0.021), those with undergraduate and graduate degrees (p=0.036), and those living in the city center were high (p=0.044). While the scale's total score was higher in those who benefited from the media and previous experiences as a source of cultural information (p=0.015, p=0.002, respectively), it was lower in those who had difficulties caring for immigrants and refugee patients (p=0.035). Conclusion: In our result, it is seen that the level of intercultural sensitivity in nurses is moderate, and age, education level, and place of residence for immigrant or refugee patients affect intercultural sensitivity. It is seen that nurses with low intercultural sensitivity have difficulties in giving care to immigrant and refugee patients.

An Analysis of Undergraduate EFL Students’ Perceptions of Intercultural Sensitivity

Intercultural sensitivity, which is seen as an affective component of intercultural competence, is crucial to cultivating one’s favorable emotions about cultural differences experienced in intercultural communication. This qualitative study was conducted to find out how undergraduate English as a foreign language (EFL) students in Vietnam perceived intercultural sensitivity. The results showed that although the majority of students had not previously heard the phrase “intercultural sensitivity” before taking part in the survey, their intuitive understanding of the term was rather close to that of the literature. The participants were well aware of the evaluation of their intercultural sensitivity level. EFL students had different strategies for improvement of intercultural sensitivity depending on their study level and intercultural awareness. All participants, especially those who were learning a second language, believed that intercultural awareness is crucial. The study findings point to the recommendation that educators strive to further integrate intercultural sensitivity instruction and learning to improve EFL students’ capacity for intercultural communication.

Investigation of the Relationship Between Xenophobic Attitude and Intercultural Sensitivity Level in Health Education Students

Intercultural sensitivity and xenophobia levels of health education students can affect the care they give to the patient. It is important to know the level of intercultural sensitivity and xenophobia of students receiving health education and to determine the relationship between them. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between xenophobic attitudes and intercultural sensitivity among university students. This quantitative cross-sectional research was conducted in between January and June 2022 with health education students. The study conducted with health education students at Gumushane University and Agri Ibrahim Cecen University. Child Development, Nursing, Emergency Management Services/Technicians, Nutrition and Dietetics, Elderly care, Social services, Medical Laboratory Techniques, and Disabled Care studying at these universities were included in the study. Students who received health education and wanted to participate voluntarily in the study were included. Students aged 18 and over, studying in the health education department of the university, studying in the 1, 2, 3, 4th classes and volunteering to participate in the study were included in the study. The Introductory Information Form, the Xenophobia Scale, and the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale were used to collect the research data. This study was conducted with 789 students. According to our study, a significant negative correlation was found between the students' xenophobia scale and the intercultural sensitivity scale total score means (p < .05). Intercultural sensitivity has a negative and significant effect on the level of xenophobia (β = -0.116; t (787) = -3.283, p = .001). A significant difference was found between the students' Xenophobia Scale total score mean and gender, department, and grade (p < .05) as was the case between Intercultural Sensitivity Scale total score mean and gender, department, grade, immigrant acquaintance, and foreign language knowledge (English language) level (p < .05). Intercultural sensitivity has a negative and significant effect on the level of xenophobia. It can negatively affect the level of caregiving of students receiving health education. It is thought that intercultural sensitivity will be developed by including course content in the curriculum to increase students' intercultural effectiveness and awareness levels and to reduce xenophobic prejudices.

Intercultural sensitivity of instructors in Ethiopian public universities

ABSTRACT Higher education institutions are a place where transformation is a guiding principle. Instructors, as major agents for change, are expected to have qualities that transcend the boundaries of one-size-fits-all. This study, therefore, examined the intercultural sensitivity of university instructors in Ethiopian public universities. It was primarily aimed at investigating their intercultural sensitivity across several major demographic and background variables. A quantitative research approach substantiated with qualitative data was employed for the study. Results show that instructors’ intercultural sensitivity in all universities regarding their demographic characteristics and background information, except academic status and gender, were not found to be determinants of sensitivity. Their intercultural sensitivity levels across the dimensions, however, were different among instructors in all universities. Recommendations are made, taking into account the findings and their implications underpinning intercultural sensitivity as the sine qua non for academic prowess.