Informal Level Research Articles

Student appeals of grades: a comparative study of university policies and practices

Handling appeals against grades is time consuming and requires allocation of resources away from the pursuit of activities such as instruction, research, and supervision of postgraduate students. This study examines grievance policies, frequencies, and outcomes of appeals at the University of California (UCB) and the University of Oslo (UIO). We find that while the number of formal grievances at the Norwegian institution is high and rising, that at UCB is extremely low and stable by comparison. Most grievance cases at UIO do not result in a change of grade; however, when grade changes do occur, they are most often in favour of the complainant. Compared with UIO, UCB had surprisingly few filed formal grievances. Grade disputes at UCB are most often resolved at an informal level and only rarely proceed to a formal case. We argue in favour of the application of informal methodologies to reduce the number of formal cases that arise. Such processes allow the core of the matter to be discerned before any formal appeal is initiated and provide excellent opportunities for the stakeholders to learn from the process.

From defiance to engagement: An evaluation of Shell’s approach to conflict resolution in the Niger Delta

In the course of the lengthy era of military rule in Nigeria, the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd (Shell) enjoyed robust protection from the State, a scenario that largely left the unrelenting demands of the Niger Delta peoples unheeded. Over the last decade, however, Shell has gradually become responsive to the inevitable need of getting involved in State and non-State initiatives for finding sustainable peace in the Niger Delta region. At formal and informal levels, these initiatives are becoming evident although challenges remain. This essay proceeds from the premise that the Niger Delta conflict is not interminable. Extrapolating from the various efforts made by Shell towards resolving its conflicts with the peoples of the Niger Delta, this essay accentuates some of the missing links between top-down efforts and bottom-up initiatives in building sustainable peace in the region. Drawing from learned experiences of Shell’s successes and failures as well as of Nigeria’s power relations and institutional architecture, this essay contends that while compensatory gestures could play a major role in the resolution of conflicts, that approach alone cannot guarantee conflict resolution and reconciliation in the Niger Delta. The overarching outcome of this evaluation is an attempt at identifying the entry points of concerted conflict resolution strategies, with practical focus on the short-, medium- and long-term attainment of peace.

The Role of Context in Third Graders’ Learning of Area Measurement

Many researches showed that the most of students find the difficulty in measuring area. The formula of area tends to be taught directly without involving the conceptual basis and the area measurement are separated from children’s daily experiences. For this reason, the teaching and learning of area measurement was designed and link to a set of students’ experience-based activities. The context of this research is Indonesian traditional handicraft namely anyaman. The study is situated in the context of implementing an Indonesian version of Realistic Mathematics Education, labeled as PMRI in Indonesia. Design Research methodology comprising preliminary design, teaching experiment, and retrospective analysis is applied. This research described the investigation of the context as preliminary of teaching and learning about area measurement held in 3th grade of primary school SDN 119 Palembang. The result of the teaching experiment showed that problem embedded in a context could encourage the students to develop the idea of area measurement concept. The strategies through emergent modeling showed how students’ contribution could be used to develop gradually their reasoning of area measurement concept. In the experience-based activities for learning area measurement, emergent modeling played an important role in the shift of students’ reasoning from informal level towards formal mathematical concepts of area measurement.

The construction of evidence-based local health policy through partnerships: Research infrastructure, process, and context in the Rotterdam ‘Healthy in the City’ programme

Many authors in public health identify gaps between science, policy, and professional practice and seek to solve the problems by facilitating interactions between policymakers and researchers by creating partnership structures. Little empirical research indicates how these interactions contribute to use of research by policymakers, and under which conditions. We provide empirical information by analysing one project in an innovative partnership structure in the Netherlands. We show that although a partnership structure might facilitate interactions, it does not automatically render these interactions meaningful. To balance potential conflicts, careful issue management on a formal and informal level is needed. Partnership designs aiming to facilitate interactions between researchers and policymakers should pay attention to the role of knowledge brokers, expectations of science and policy actors, and the ways in which different perspectives can be helped to converge.

Mobile Banking: Overview of Regulatory Framework in Emerging Markets

Across the developing countries, millions of people rely on informal economic activity and local level networks to earn their living. Most of these populations are from bottom of pyramid and they don’t have access to basic financial services/banks as access to them is costly and very limited. However, the outstanding growth of mobile sector worldwide has created a unique opportunity to provide social and financial services over the mobile network. With over 4 billion mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide, mobile network has the ability to immediately offer mobile banking to 61% of the world population. A study states the biggest share of mobile payment users will be in the Asia/Pacific region by 2012(Gartner,2008). In the context of being the most promising ICT market and the largest inbound remittance receiver, this region is expected to be the hub of m-banking transactions. The paper starts with an overview of existing models of m-banking and then examines the m-banking regulations in some South Asian countries and of the countries where (e.g. the Philippines, Kenya, South Africa) m-baking/payment system is already in practice or a success. The concerns of financial regulators and policy measures taken so far are discussed in light of the discussions in international forums.

High-Technology Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies: Firm Informality and Contextualization of Resource-Based Theory

High-technology entrepreneurship in emerging economies takes place in a context very different from that of developed economies. In large measure, this difference is due to greater resource constraints and higher levels of firm informality in emerging economies. In this study, we examine formal versus informal young high-technology ventures, assessing the extent to which firm informality moderates the relationship between technology investments and firm performance in an emerging economy. We find that technology investments are positively related to firm performance. Yet, firm informality positively moderates the relationship between resources and firm performance. The effect of resources tends to be contingent on the level of firm informality in an emerging economy. Greater resource constraints and higher levels of firm informality not only represent critical factors in emerging economies, but also are essential for contextualizing resource-based theory.

The ‘pleasure citizen’

In this article, we explore the potential for leisure as a site for new forms of political participation. Using electronic dance music culture (EDMC) as an example, we locate our analysis within theories of neo-liberalism and neo-tribalism, both of which suggest that political participation may be occurring at an informal level through consumption. Interview and focus group data on participation in EDMC in the southwest of England were analyzed, producing the themes of ‘community, sociality and belonging’, ‘hedonism’, ‘multiplicity and flux’ and ‘Sovereignty’. These themes provided evidence for EDMC as a site for neo-tribal social and political participation, in which people created local and informal spaces of au-tonomy characterized by a celebration of community, sociality and hedonism. However, participants also drew on neo-liberal discourses of individualism, rights and responsibilities to make sense of their participation in EDMC, producing a move from economic and consumer citizen subjects to the ‘pleasure’ citizen.

The Impact of Economic Globalization on Labor Informality

This paper explores, empirically and at the global level, the relation between economic globalization and informal employment. Based on data over a long period of time on labor informality, economic globalization, level of development and institutional freedom in various countries, three linear models are advanced. One is a static model which suggests that a greater level of globalization reduces the level of informality. In contrast, two alternative dynamic models show that, taking into consideration the historic development of each country, a differential impact of globalization on employment informality becomes evident. In developing countries, higher globalization levels will result in higher levels of labor informality, while in developed countries the effects of globalization will be the opposite and produce lower levels of informality. An additional finding is that an institutional context of economic liberalization at the national level increases labor informalization.

Technology, social services and organizational innovation or how great expectations in London and Cardiff are dashed in Lowestoft and Cymtyrch

The purpose of this paper is to illuminate important aspects of the policy implementation process in UK welfare organizations. We draw on two evaluations in which we were each involved — those of the Integrated Children's System and the Children's Fund. Our interpretive frameworks share a concern to foreground the significance of the local, informal, and ground level, but do so in ways that acknowledge the encompassing governmental and policy contexts. We illustrate and assess the significance of multiple policy aspirations, the significance of local implementation contexts, the diverse ways in which practitioners gain and subsequently develop knowledge of how policy works, and how such knowledge moves about in organizations. We indicate the kinds of expertise that social service workers bring to and achieve as actors within policy innovations, and how they may manage and in some cases seek to control knowledge shifts between providers and users of services. We infer the inadequacy of conventional top-down models of implementing policy innovations.

Optimality Properties of Planning Via Petri Net Unfolding: A Formal Analysis

We provide a theoretical analysis of planning via Petri net unfolding, a novel technique for synthesising parallel plans. Parallel plans are generally valued for their execution flexi- bility, which manifests as alternative choices for the order- ing of operators and potentially faster plan executions. Being a relatively new approach, the flexibility properties of plans synthesised via unfolding, and even the concurrency seman- tics supported by this technique, are particularly unclear and only understood at an informal level. In this paper, we first formally characterise the concurrency semantics of planning via unfolding as a further restriction on the standard notion of independence. More importantly, we then prove that plans obtained using this approach are optimal deorderings and op- timal reorderings in terms of the number of ordering con- straints on operators and plan execution time, respectively. These results provide objective guarantees on the quality of plans obtained by the unfolding technique.

Integrating top-down and scenario-based methods for constructing software specifications

How to achieve a complete and consistent software specification by construction is an important issue for software quality assurance but still remains an open problem. The difficulty lies in the fact that the assurance of the completeness needs user’s judgments and the specification keeps changing as requirements analysis progresses. To allow the user to easily make such judgments and to reduce chances for creating inconsistencies due to frequent specification modifications, in this paper we describe an intuitive, formal, and expressive specification method that integrates top-down decompositional and scenario-based compositional methods. The decompositional method is used at an informal level with the goal of achieving a complete coverage of the user’s functional requirements, while the compositional method is used to precisely define the functionality of each scenario and to construct complex scenarios by composition of simple scenarios in a formal, intuitive language called SOFL. Combination of the decompositional and compositional processes can facilitate the analyst in completing a specification in a hierarchical structure. We present an example to illustrate how the integrated method is used in practice and describe a software support tool for the method.

Does it pay firms to register for taxes? The impact of formality on firm profitability

This paper estimates the impact of registering for taxes on firm profits in Bolivia, the country with the highest levels of informality in Latin America. A new survey of micro and small firms enables us to control for a rich set of measures of owner ability and business motivations that can affect both profits and the decision to formalize. We identify the impact of tax registration on business profitability using the distance of a firm from the tax office where registration occurs, conditional on the distance to the city center, as an instrument for registration. Proximity to the tax office provides firms with more information about registration, but is argued to not directly affect profits. We find tax registration leads to significantly higher profits for the firms that the instrument affects. However, we also find some evidence of heterogeneous effects of tax formality on profits. Tax registration appears to increase profits for the mid-sized firms in our sample, but to lower profits for both the marginal smaller and larger firms, in contrast to the standard view that formality increases profits. We show that owners of large firms who have managed to stay informal are of higher entrepreneurial ability than formal firm owners, in contrast to the standard view (correct among smaller firms) that informal firm owners are low ability.

Enforcement of labor regulation and firm size

This paper investigates how enforcement of labor regulation affects firm size and other firm characteristics in Brazil. The authors explore firm level data on employment, capital, and output, city level data for economic city characteristics and new administrative data measuring enforcement of regulation at the city level. Since enforcement may be endogenous, authors instrument this variable with the distance between the city where the firm is located and surrounding enforcement offices, while controlling for a very rich set of city characteristics (such as past levels of informality in the city). The authors present suggestive evidence of the validity of this instrument. The authors find that stricter enforcement of labor regulation constrains firm size.

Labor regulation and employment in India's retail stores

A new dataset of 1,948 retail stores in India shows that 27 percent of the stores find labor regulations as a problem for their business. Using these data, author analyzes the effect of labor regulations on employment at the store level. The author foound that flexible labor regulations have a strong positive effect on job creation. The author estimates show that labor reforms are likely to increase employment by 22 percent of the current level for an average store. The author also addresses the issue of informality in India's retail sector. The author findings suggest that more flexible labor laws can encourage firms to operate in the more efficient formal retail sector. According to author estimates, labor reforms can reduce the level of informality by as much as 33 percent.

Labor Regulation, Employment and Informality: Evidence from the Retail Sector in India

A new dataset of 1,948 retail stores in India compiled by the World Bank's Enterprise Surveys shows that 27% of the stores find labor regulations as a problem for their business. Using these data we analyze the effect of labor regulations on employment at the store level. We find that stricter labor regulations have a strong negative effect on employment. Our estimates show that labor reforms are likely to increase employment by 22% of the current level for an average store. We also address the issue of informality in the country's retail sector. Our findings suggest that more stringent labor laws encourage firms to operate in the relatively less efficient informal retail sector where labor laws are hardly implemented. According to our estimates, labor reforms could reduce the level of informality by as much as 33% of the current level.

The Changing Face of Heritage at Canada’s National Historic Sites

In order for all citizens to fully belong to a nation or a community, they must have membership in that society’s institutions, systems and social relations on both the formal and everyday levels. Heritage sites are public institutions of formal cultural presentation and informal social encounters where society demonstrates community membership. But in a country such as Canada where global economics and popular culture combine with an unprecedented influx of immigrants, how a community imagines itself and articulates its heritage is changing radically. Canada’s National Historic Sites (NHS) is among the important public institutions devoted to both the presentation of heritage and demonstration of citizen membership. This paper describes how this institution is adapting to changes in imaginings about citizenship, on both the formal and informal level. It looks at how NHS is expanding the involvement of all citizens in the why, what, how and to whom of heritage presentation, evolving its practices to include ethic minorities in its imaginings of Canadianness. Using as an example a new NHS exhibit and designations related to the Underground Railroad and African‐Canadians, the paper considers how historic sites, as formal instruments of the state, can be re‐tuned as informal sites of discourse and negotiation about identity, citizenship and belonging.

Public sector performance measurement in developing countries

Purpose – This paper aims to explore the influence of specific characteristics of the public sector in developing countries (i.e. a low‐institutional capacity, a limited involvement of stakeholders, and high levels of corruption and informality), and of reforms of this sector, on public sector performance measurement (PSPM).Design/methodology/approach – Based on a review of prior literature, the paper develops understanding of the demand for and supply of performance information in developing countries, and of changes in this area.Findings – The paper argues that public sector organisations in developing countries are likely to face an unbalanced position, i.e. disequilibrium between the demand for and supply of performance information. More precisely, the public sector reforms – which are partly stimulated by a growing involvement of some stakeholders – lead to an increasing demand for performance information but, because of the low‐institutional capacity and the high level of corruption, this increasing...

Codecision and institutional change

This article examines the sources and processes of institutional change in one important aspect of EU politics – the legislative procedure of codecision – and shows how interstitial change of institutions that emerges between formal Treaty revisions and under specific conditions may be formalised in subsequent formal Treaty reforms. We develop two related models of Treaty change. First, in a ‘simple’ model, informal rules will be formalised in the Treaty text where all member states are in agreement, and will be rolled back when all member states oppose them; otherwise they will continue in existence at the informal level. Second, in a more complex framework, actors that have effective veto powers in a related arena may make credible threats that allow them to press member states into formalising informal rules, provided that member states are not unanimously opposed to this formalisation. We empirically assess our claims in the light of several instances of informal rules applied in the codecision procedure.

Modeling Informality Formally: Households and Firms

Informality is widespread in most developing countries. In Latin America, 50 percent of salaried employees work informally. Three stylized facts characterize informality: 1) small firms tend to operate informally while large firms tend to operate formally; 2) unskilled workers tend to be informal while skilled ones have formal jobs; 3) Ceteris paribus, secondary workers are less likely to operate formally than primary workers. We develop a model that account for all these facts. In our model both heterogeneous firms and workers have preferences over the sector they operate and choose optimally whether to function formally or informally. There are two labor markets, one formal and the other informal, and both firms and workers act unconstrained in them. By contrast, a prominent feature of the pre-existing literature is the idea that worker's decisions play no role in determining the equilibrium of the economy. Using our model, we show that an increase in the participation of secondary workers would tend to raise the level of informality in the economy. This effect partially accounts for the increases in informality seen in Latin America over the past two decades.

Germanic V-in-C: Some Riddles

Usually, the Germanic languages are classified syntactically as V2-languages (see König and van der Auwera 1994). This is clearly due to the fact that they coincide wrt predominance of V-in-C clauses in root positions. Given this V-in-C/root correlation, it is highly plausible that a proper linguistic account of the exact distribution of Germanic V-in-C should at some level of analysis make appeal to the one characteristic property of root clauses, i.e. illocutionary force potential. Such an intuition has repeatedly guided research on V2, work inspired by Hooper & Thompson (1973) such as Andersson (1975) being among the early examples. However, this kind of work remained on a rather informal level, so Hubert Truckenbrodt (henceforth HT) deserves full credit for having put forth an explicit and non-trivial proposal for the analysis of German V-in-C that integrates syntax, discourse semantics, and pragmatics. Integration is guaranteed by so-called “context indices” and formulated as follows (cf. HT's (17)).