Cerebrospinal Fluid Cytokine Levels Research Articles

Elevated cytokine levels in the central nervous system of cluster headache patients in bout and in remission

BackgroundCluster headache is characterized by activation of the trigeminovascular pathway with subsequent pain signalling in the meningeal vessels, and inflammation has been suggested to play a role in the pathophysiology. To further investigate inflammation in cluster headache, inflammatory markers were analysed in patients with cluster headache and controls.MethodsWe performed a case–control study, collecting cerebrospinal fluid and serum samples from healthy controls, cluster headache patients in remission, active bout, and during an attack to cover the dynamic range of the cluster headache phenotype. Inflammatory markers were quantified using Target 48 OLINK cytokine panels.ResultsAltered levels of several cytokines were found in patients with cluster headache compared to controls. CCL8, CCL13, CCL11, CXCL10, CXCL11, HGF, MMP1, TNFSF10 and TNFSF12 levels in cerebrospinal fluid were comparable in active bout and remission, though significantly higher than in controls. In serum samples, CCL11 and CXCL11 displayed decreased levels in patients. Only one cytokine, IL-13 was differentially expressed in serum during attacks.Conclusion and interpretationOur data shows signs of possible neuroinflammation occurring in biological samples from cluster headache patients. Increased cerebrospinal fluid cytokine levels are detectable in active bout and during remission, indicating neuroinflammation could be considered a marker for cluster headache and is unrelated to the different phases of the disorder.

Specimen type validation and establishment of normal cytokine reference intervals in cerebrospinal fluid

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a critical body fluid to examine in attempts to discover potential biomarkers for neuroinflammatory and other disorders of the central nervous system (CNS). Serum and/or plasma cytokine levels have been associated with a variety of inflammatory conditions, and some have been shown to be actionable therapeutic targets. Less is known, however, about cytokine levels in CSF. Serum and plasma cytokine testing is widely available in clinical and research laboratories, but cytokine testing in CSF is extremely limited and if performed, accompanied by a disclaimer that it is an unvalidated specimen type. In this study, we validate CSF as a suitable specimen type and determine normal reference intervals for multiple cytokines as well as a soluble cytokine receptor. CSF was validated as a specimen type for testing using a laboratory developed multiplexed cytokine assay previously validated to measure 13 cytokines/markers in serum and plasma. Performance parameters including specimen dilution, specimen interference, linearity and precision were examined. Reference intervals were established using 197 normal and control CSF specimens by non-parametric quantile-based methods. CSF cytokine analysis demonstrated within and between run precision of <10% and < 20% CV, respectively and linearity of ±15% for all analytes throughout the analytical measurement range of the assay. Reference intervals for the 13 cytokines/markers were established from 197 normal and control CSF specimens (78 Male; mean 44.8 y ± 21.7 SD, 119 Female; mean 42.8 y ± 20.3 SD). Cytokine concentrations in CSF from normal donors and controls were less than the lower limit of quantitation of our assay for 6 of the 13 measured cytokines/markers. The chemokine IL8 demonstrated the highest concentration of all analytes measured. CSF demonstrated acceptable performance as a specimen type in our multiplexed cytokine assay. By validating CSF as a specimen type and establishing normal reference intervals for cytokine concentrations in CSF, their potential as biomarkers for infectious, autoimmune and other inflammatory CNS disorders can be more appropriately investigated.

Evidence for cytokine dysregulation in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: A comparison of cerebrospinal fluid and blood samples

Abnormalities in immune function have been described in schizophrenia but few studies have investigated cytokines in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and their correlation with blood levels. In this cross-sectional study, cytokines were measured in CSF and plasma of 30 subjects with schizophrenia spectrum disorder (SSD) diagnosis and 23 healthy volunteers (HV). Results showed that CSF TNFα was increased in SSD subjects compared to HV and there were no correlations between CSF and plasma cytokine levels. The present findings provide evidence of dysregulation of TNFα in CSF of schizophrenia. These results identify elevated CSF TNFα levels as a potential biomarker in schizophrenia.

Second-line immunotherapy in new onset refractory status epilepticus.

Several pieces of evidence suggest immune dysregulation could trigger the onset and modulate sequelae of new onset refractory status epilepticus (NORSE), including its subtype with prior fever known as febrile infection-related epilepsy syndrome (FIRES). Consensus-driven recommendations have been established to guide the initiation of first- and second-line immunotherapies in these patients. Here, we review the literature to date on second-line immunotherapy for NORSE/FIRES, presenting results from 28 case reports and series describing the use of anakinra, tocilizumab, or intrathecal dexamethasone in 75 patients with NORSE. Among them, 52 patients were managed with anakinra, 21 with tocilizumab, and eight with intrathecal dexamethasone. Most had elevated serum or cerebrospinal fluid cytokine levels at treatment initiation. Treatments were predominantly initiated during the acute phase of the disease (92%) and resulted, within the first 2 weeks, in seizure control for up to 73% of patients with anakinra, 70% with tocilizumab, and 50% with intrathecal dexamethasone. Cytokine levels decreased after treatment for most patients. Anakinra and intrathecal dexamethasone were mainly initiated in children with FIRES, whereas tocilizumab was more frequently prescribed for adults, with or without a prior febrile infection. There was no clear correlation between the response to treatment and the time to initiate the treatment. Most patients experienced long-term disability and drug-resistant post-NORSE epilepsy. Initiation of second-line immunotherapies during status epilepticus (SE) had no clear effect on the emergence of post-NORSE epilepsy or long-term functional outcomes. In a small number of cases, the initiation of anakinra or tocilizumab several years after SE onset resulted in a reduction of seizure frequency for 67% of patients. These data highlight the potential utility of anakinra, tocilizumab, and intrathecal dexamethasone in patients with NORSE. There continues to be interest in the utilization of early cytokine measurements to guide treatment selection and response. Prospective studies are necessary to understand the role of early immunomodulation and its associations with epilepsy and functional outcomes.

COVID-19-associated serum and cerebrospinal fluid cytokines in post- versus para-infectious SARS-CoV-2-related Guillain-Barré syndrome.

Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with Coronavirus-2-related severe acute respiratory syndrome (COV-GBS) occurs as para- or post-infectious forms, depending on the timing of disease onset. In these two forms, we aimed to compare the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum proinflammatory cytokine profiles to evaluate differences that could possibly have co-pathogenic relevance. We studied a retrospective cohort of 26 patients with either post-COV-GBS (n = 15), with disease onset occurring > 7days after SARS-CoV-2 infection, or para-COV-GBS (n = 11), with disease onset 7days or less. TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8 were measured in the serum with SimplePlex™ Ella™ immunoassay. In addition to the para-/post-COV-GBS patients, serum levels of these cytokines were determined in those with non-COVID-associated-GBS (NC-GBS; n = 43), paucisymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection without GBS (COVID, n = 20), and in healthy volunteers (HV; n = 12). CSF cytokine levels were measured in patients with para-/post-COV-GBS, in those with NC-GBS (n = 29), or with Alzheimer's disease (AD; n = 24). Serum/CSF cytokine levels did not differ in para- vs post-COV-GBS. We found that SARS-CoV-2 infection raises the serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8, as well as an increase of IL-6 (in serum and CSF) and IL-8 (in CSF) in either NC-GBS or COV-GBS than controls. CSF and serum cytokine levels resulted independent one with another. The change of cytokines linked to SARS-CoV-2 in COV-GBS appears to be driven by viral infection, although it has unique characteristics in GBS as such and does not account for cases with para- or post-infectious onset.

The Haptoglobin Response after Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Haemorrhage

Haptoglobin is the body’s first line of defence against the toxicity of extracellular haemoglobin released following a subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH). We investigated the haptoglobin response after SAH in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum. Paired CSF and serum samples from 19 controls and 92 SAH patients were assayed as follows: ultra-performance liquid chromatography for CSF haemoglobin and haptoglobin, immunoassay for serum haptoglobin and multiplexed CSF cytokines, and colorimetry for albumin. There was marked CSF haptoglobin deficiency: 99% of extracellular haemoglobin was unbound. The quotients for both CSF/serum albumin (qAlb) and haptoglobin (qHp) were used to compute the CSF haptoglobin index (qHp/qAlb). CSF from SAH patients had a significantly lower haptoglobin index compared to controls, especially in Haptoglobin-1 allele carriers. Serum haptoglobin levels increased after SAH and were correlated with CSF cytokine levels. Haptoglobin variables were not associated with long-term clinical outcomes post-SAH. We conclude that: (1) intrathecal haptoglobin consumption occurs after SAH, more so in haptoglobin-1 allele carriers; (2) serum haptoglobin is upregulated after SAH, in keeping with the liver acute phase response to central inflammation; (3) haptoglobin in the CSF is so low that any variation is too small for this to affect long-term outcomes, emphasising the potential for therapeutic haptoglobin supplementation.

Cerebrospinal Fluid IL-6 Plus IL-10 As Effective Diagnostic Biomarkers for Secondary Central Nervous System Lymphoma

Background : Secondary central nervous system lymphoma (SCNSL) characterized by the involvement of the CNS at initial diagnosis of systemic lymphoma or in the setting of relapse. Accurate diagnosis and therapeutic response of SCNSL are particular challenges, which need to be improved. We aimed to evaluate the diagnostic and the post-therapeutic prognostic value of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokine in patients with SCNSL. Methods: In this retrospective study involving 234 NHL patients and 53 other CNS patients, the NHL patients was divided into two sub-groups based on with and without CNS involvement: SCNSL (n=57) and non-SCNSL (n=177). The CSF cytokine profiles (interleukin (IL)-2, -4, -6, and -10, tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, and IL-17A) of these patients were measured by cytometric bead assay and evaluated the ability of CSF cytokine levels as diagnostic, therapeutic and prognostic biomarkers for SCNSL. Results: CSF IL-6 and IL-10 levels were significantly higher in SCNSL patients than non-SCNSL and other CNS patients. CSF levels of IL-6 and IL-10 were significantly higher in patients with an stage at Ⅲ and Ⅳ, CSF WBC counts&amp;gt;5/µL, CSF protein ≥0.45g/L.Using a CSF IL-6 cut-off value of 10.13 pg/ml yielded a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity was 62.34% and 87.57%, respectively (AUC, 0.7798; 95% CI, 0.7083 to 0.8514); For a CSF IL-10 cutoff value of 7.82, the sensitivity was 76.23%, and the specificity was 98.31% (AUC, 0.8164; 95% CI, 0.7466 to 0.8862). Combined CSF IL-6 and IL-10 significantly improved the diagnostic effect of SCNSL (AUC, 0.8959; 95% CI, 0.8371 to 0.9547). The levels of IL-6 and IL-10 in cerebrospinal fluid of SCNSL patients who responded to intrathecal chemotherapy were significantly decreased during follow-up, while the levels of these two cytokines showed fluctuating changes in patients with progressive SCNSL. Moreover, poor Progression free survival (PFS) for patients with SCNSL was associated with the increased CSF IL-10 level at diagnosis with CNS involvement (P=0.035), but not with the increased CSF IL-6 level. Conclusion: Our study confirmed CSF level of IL-6 and IL-10 were potentially effective diagnostic biomarkers for SCNSL, and poor progression free survival (PFS) for patients with SCNSL was associated with the increased CSF IL-10 level.

Inflammatory changes in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with persistent pain and postpartum depression after elective Cesarean delivery: an exploratory prospective cohort study.

Severe acute pain after Cesarean delivery increases the risk of developing persistent pain (~20% incidence) and postpartum depression (PPD) (~15% incidence). Both conditions contribute to maternal morbidity and mortality, yet early risk stratification remains challenging. Neuroinflammation has emerged as a key mechanism of persistent pain and depression in nonobstetric populations. Nevertheless, most studies focus on plasma cytokines, and the relationship between plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokine levels is unclear. Our primary aim was to compare inflammatory marker levels between patients who developed the composite outcome of persistent pain and/or PPD vs those who did not. We recruited term patients with singleton pregnancies undergoing elective Cesarean delivery under neuraxial anesthesia into an exploratory prospective cohort study. We collected baseline demographic, obstetric, and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale information, and performed quantitative sensory tests. Plasma was collected preoperatively and 48hr postoperatively. In the operating room, 10mL of CSF was collected, followed by a standardized anesthetic. Intra- and postoperative management were according to standard practice. We obtained Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and pain scores at six weeks and three months after delivery. The primary outcome was persistent pain and/or PPD at three months. We analyzed the difference in inflammatory marker levels between the groups (primary aim) using two-sided Mann-Whitney tests. Eighty participants were enrolled, and 63 patients completed the study; 23 (37%) experienced the primary outcome at three months. Preoperative plasma transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) concentration was higher in patients who developed the primary outcome compared with those who did not (median [interquartile range (IQR)], 2,879 [2,241-5,494] vs 2,292 [1,676-2,960]pg·mL-1; P = 0.04), while CSF IL-1β concentration was higher in patients who developed the primary outcome than in those who did not (median [IQR], 0.36 [0.29-0.39] vs 0.30 [0.25-0.35]pg·mL-1; P = 0.03). We observed differential levels of plasma and CSF inflammatory biomarkers in patients who developed persistent pain and PPD compared with those who did not. We showed the feasibility of collecting plasma and CSF samples at Cesarean delivery, which may prove useful for future risk-stratification. ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04271072); registered 17 February 2020.

Blood-brain barrier permeability is associated with different neuroinflammatory profiles in Alzheimer's disease.

Inflammation is an important player in Alzheimer's disease (AD), whose effects can be influenced by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Here, we investigated the relationship between BBB permeability, indicated by cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)/plasma albumin quotient (Qalb), and CSF indexes of neuroinflammation in a cohort of biologically defined AD patients. Fifty-nine consecutive patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or early AD (Mini-Mental State Examination [MMSE] >22) underwent CSF analysis for inflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, Il-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-17, tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α], interferon-γ [IFN-γ], granulocyte-monocyte colony-stimulating factor [GM-CSF], granulocyte colony-stimulating factor [G-CSF]). Using backward stepwise linear regression analysis, we explored the potential influence of each cytokine CSF level on Qalb considering age, sex, and apolipoprotein E (APOE) as covariates. Higher levels of IL-4 (β = 0.356, 0.005) and IL-8 (β = 0.249, 0.05) were associated with higher Qalb values, while macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1β) (β = -0.274; p = 0.032) and TNF-α (β = -0.248; p = 0.031) showed a significant negative association with BBB permeability. Age was also positively associated with Qalb (β = 0.283; p = 0.016). Despite the overall integrity of the BBB, its permeability could either influence or be influenced by central neuroinflammation, reflected by CSF cytokine levels. This is in line with previous studies that showed that patients with a more intact barrier are those with more prominent neurodegeneration. Our findings suggest that different neuroinflammatory profiles can be associated with different levels of BBB permeability in AD.

Analysis of the clinical characteristics of 25 cases with parenchymal neuro-Behcet's disease

Objective: To retrospectively investigate the clinical data, radiological characteristics, treatment, and outcome of patients with parenchymal neuro-Behcet's disease (P-NBD) with particular emphasis on dizziness. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study of clinical data from 25 patients with a confirmed diagnosis of P-NBD who were admitted to the Department of Neurology of the First Medical Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital between 2010 and 2022. The median age of the population was 37 years (range: 17-85 years). Clinical data were retrospectively analyzed, including gender, age of onset, disease duration, clinical manifestations, serum immune indicators, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) routine biochemical and cytokine levels, cranial and spinal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings, treatment, and outcome. Results: The majority of patients were male (16 cases; 64.0%), the mean age of onset was (28±14) (range: 4-58 years), and the disease course was acute or subacute. Fever was the most common clinical presentation, and the complaint of dizziness was not uncommon (8/25 patients). Analysis of serum immune indices, including complement (C3 and C4), erythrocyte sedimentation rate, interleukin-1 (IL-1), IL-6, IL-8 and tumor necrotic factor-alpha were abnormal in 80.0% of patients (20/25). Most of the 16/25 patients who underwent lumbar puncture tests had normal intracranial pressure and increased CSF white cell count and protein [median values were 44 (15-380) ×106/L and 0.73 (0.49-2.81) g/L, respectively]. Of the five patients who underwent CSF cytokine tests, four patients had abnormal results; of these, an elevated level of IL-6 was most common, followed by IL-1 and IL-8. The most common site of involvement in cranial MRI was the brainstem and basal ganglia (60.0% respectively), followed by white matter (48.0%) and the cortex (44.0%). Nine cases (36.0%) showed lesions with enhancement and six cases (24.0%) showed mass-like lesions. Three patients (12.0%) patients had lesions in the spinal cord, most frequently in the thoracic cord. All patients received immunological intervention therapy; during follow up, the majority had a favorable outcome. Conclusions: P-NBD is an autoimmune disease with multiple system involvement and diverse clinical manifestations. The symptom of dizziness is not uncommon and can be easily ignored. Early treatment with immunotherapy is important and can improve the outcome of these patients.

Association between NKG2/KLR gene variants and epilepsy in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a set of neurodevelopmental disorders mainly characterized by repetitive, restrictive and stereotypical behaviors, and impaired communication skills. Several lines of evidence indicate that alterations of the immune system account for ASD development, including the presence of brain-reactive antibodies, abnormal T cell activation, altered cytokine levels in brain, cerebrospinal fluid and peripheral blood circulation, increased levels of circulating monocytes, and dysregulation in Natural Killer (NK) cells activity. Regarding NK cells, a lower cytotoxic activity, a higher level of activation and an increased number of these cells in individuals with ASD have been described. In 2019, a study showed that NK cells derived from patients with ASD show a characteristic pattern of NKG2C overexpression, highlighting the importance of the NK cell pathway in ASD. In fact, the study of genes related to NK cell activity has proven to be an excellent research target, both in terms of susceptibility as well as a marker for the different clinical manifestations observed in ASD individuals. Here, we evaluated the influence of KLRC2 gene deletion as well as KLRK1 rs1049174 and rs2255336 variants in a cohort of 185 children diagnosed with ASD and their respective biological parents in southern Brazil. Of note, this is the first study concerning genetic variants of the KLRC2 and KLRK1 genes in an ASD sample. The KLRC2 gene deletion (p = 0.001; pc = 0.009), KLRK1 rs1049174 (p = 0.005; pc = 0.045) and KLRK1 rs2255336 (p = 0.001; pc = 0.009) were associated with epilepsy in ASD patients. The results indicate that KLRC2 deletion, KLRK1 rs2255336, and KLRK1 rs1049174 could be involved in epilepsy manifestation in ASD patients, possibly impacting the NK dysregulation already described in ASD and epileptic patients.

Overproduction of Pro-inflammatory Cytokines in New-Onset Refractory Status Epilepticus (NORSE) (S35.002)

<h3>Objective:</h3> To investigate inflammation using cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum cytokines/chemokines in patients with New-Onset Refractory Status Epilepticus. <h3>Background:</h3> Patients with New-Onset Refractory Status Epilepticus without explanation after initial evaluation (NORSE) often haven poor outcomes. Understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying NORSE and its long-term consequences is crucial to improve NORSE management and prevent secondary neuronal injury. Several arguments suggest NORSE is a disorder of immunity or inflammation, likely post-infectious. Nonetheless, previous studies were conducted on insufficient patient cohorts to definitively identify biomarkers of inflammation in NORSE patients. <h3>Design/Methods:</h3> Patients with NORSE (n=61) were compared to patients with other refractory SE (RSE, n=37), and control patients without SE (n=52). We measured 12 cytokines/chemokines in serum or CSF samples using multiplexed fluorescent bead-based immunoassay detection (BD Biosciences). Cytokine levels were compared between patients with and without SE, and between NORSE and other RSE patients. Correlation between cytokine levels, demographic and clinical data were evaluated for patients with NORSE. <h3>Results:</h3> A significant increase of innate (IL6, TNFa, IL8, CCL2, MIP1a) and adaptative (Th1 IL12p70) pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines in SE patients was observed when compared to patients without SE, in serum and CSF. Innate pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines (blood: IL8, CCL2, MIP1a; CSF: IL1beta) were significantly increased in NORSE compared to other RSE patients. Patients with higher blood and CSF cytokine levels had worse outcome several months after SE ended. In contrast, T-cell-associated cytokines (IL12p70, IL17A) did not differ between patients with NORSE and other RSE and were not associated with outcome. <h3>Conclusions:</h3> Significant differences in serum and CSF cytokine/chemokine profiles between patients with NORSE and other RSE patients were identified. The elevation of innate pro-inflammatory cytokines in NORSE patients correlated with patient’s outcome at discharge and at long-term. These findings highlight the involvement of innate inflammation in the pathogenesis of NORSE and suggest the importance of anti-inflammatory interventions to improve outcomes. <b>Disclosure:</b> Dr. Hanin has nothing to disclose. Mr. Cespedes has nothing to disclose. Dr. Dorgham has nothing to disclose. Dr. Gopaul has nothing to disclose. Dr. Hafler has received personal compensation in the range of $5,000-$9,999 for serving as a Consultant for Biogen. Dr. Hafler has received personal compensation in the range of $5,000-$9,999 for serving as a Consultant for Genetech. Dr. Hafler has received personal compensation in the range of $5,000-$9,999 for serving as a Consultant for Roche. Dr. Hafler has received personal compensation in the range of $0-$499 for serving as an Editor, Associate Editor, or Editorial Advisory Board Member for Joint Commission International. Vincent Navarro has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Consultant for UCB Pharma. Vincent Navarro has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Consultant for EISAI pharma. Vincent Navarro has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving on a Scientific Advisory or Data Safety Monitoring board for Angelini. The institution of Vincent Navarro has received research support from Fondation de l’AP-HP, Paris, France. Prof. Gaspard has nothing to disclose. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Consultant for Aquestive. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Consultant for Ceribell. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $5,000-$9,999 for serving as a Consultant for marinus. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $0-$499 for serving as a Consultant for Medtronic. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Consultant for UCB. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $0-$499 for serving as a Consultant for Accure. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Consultant for Neuropace. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Consultant for Neurelis. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Consultant for Eisai. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Consultant for Rafa Laboratories, Ltd. Dr. Hirsch has received publishing royalties from a publication relating to health care. Dr. Hirsch has received publishing royalties from a publication relating to health care. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Speaker with Neuropace. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a Speaker with Natus. Dr. Hirsch has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as a speaker with UCB.

Altered angiogenic and neuroinflammatory markers in peripartum individuals with and without severe preeclampsia compared to non-pregnant adults (P3-5.008)

<h3>Objective:</h3> To characterize angiogenic and neuroinflammatory cytokine levels in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of peripartum individuals with and without preeclampsia. <h3>Background:</h3> Preeclampsia, a hypertensive disorder of pregnancy associated with systemic endothelial dysfunction, carries high risk of neurovascular complications. Preliminary studies suggest maternal blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction in preeclampsia. <h3>Design/Methods:</h3> We analyzed serum from 26 peripartum participants (13 severe preeclampsia, 13 normotensive controls), of whom 13 participants (7 cases, 6 controls) also had CSF available for analysis. ProcartaPlex and ELISA immunoassays were used to quantify angiogenic and neuroinflammatory proteins implicated in BBB dysfunction in serum and separately CSF. We used t-test or Wilcoxon tests to compare levels between participants with and without preeclampsia. We next compared our values to published normative values for healthy non-pregnant adults. We did not correct for multiple comparisons for this exploratory analysis. <h3>Results:</h3> We found no statistically significant difference in serum or CSF levels of angiogenic (VEGF, PlGF, and sFLT1) or neuroinflammatory (CCL5/RANTES, GM-CSF, CXCL10) markers between normotensive peripartum controls and those with severe preeclampsia. Compared to historical non-pregnant controls, serum levels in both cases and controls were lower of VEGF (p&lt;0.005 for both comparisons), CCL5 (p&lt;0.002 for both comparisons), and CXCL10 (p&lt;0.0.002 for both comparisons), and sFLT1 and GM-CSF were higher (p&lt;0.02 for all comparisons). In CSF analyses, the concentration of CXCL10 was significantly lower (p&lt;0.002 for both comparisons) and sFLT1 was significantly higher (p&lt;0.03 for both comparisons), compared with non-pregnant adult reference values. <h3>Conclusions:</h3> In this pilot study, angiogenic and neuroinflammatory profiles in the serum and CSF of peripartum individuals with and without severe preeclampsia were not significantly different. However, when compared with normative values for healthy non-pregnant adults, peripartum individuals demonstrate alterations in factors regulating BBB permeability. Our results suggest that the peripartum state may be associated with changes in BBB regulation, regardless of preeclampsia diagnosis. <b>Disclosure:</b> Miss Haghighi has nothing to disclose. Ms. Tuohy has nothing to disclose. Natalie Bello has nothing to disclose. Dr. Booker has nothing to disclose. Dr. Miltiades has nothing to disclose. Ronald Wapner has nothing to disclose. The institution of Dr. Marshall has received research support from NIH. Dr. Marshall has received publishing royalties from a publication relating to health care. Dr. Miller has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as an Editor, Associate Editor, or Editorial Advisory Board Member for Elsevier. Dr. Miller has received personal compensation in the range of $500-$4,999 for serving as an Expert Witness for Argionis and Associates LLC. The institution of Dr. Miller has received research support from National Institutes of Health.

Efficacy and safety of lenalidomide in HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis patients with persistent intracranial inflammation: an open-label, single-arm, prospective interventional study

BackgroundPatients with human immunodeficiency virus-associated cryptococcal meningitis (HIV-CM) have persistent intracranial inflammation despite negative cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fungal cultures after optimal treatment for CM, which could be devastating for the central nervous system. However, a definitive treatment strategy for persistent intracranial inflammation despite optimal antifungal therapies is undefined.MethodsWe identified 14 HIV-CM patients with persistent intracranial inflammation and conducted a 24-week, prospective, interventional study. All participants received lenalidomide (25 mg, p.o.) on days 1 to 21 of a 28-day cycle. Follow-up lasted for 24 weeks with visits at baseline and weeks 4, 8, 12, and 24. The primary endpoint was the change in clinical manifestations, routine CSF parameters, and MRI findings after lenalidomide treatment. An exploratory analysis was made on changes in cytokine levels in CSF. Safety and efficacy analyses were undertaken in patients who received at least one dose of lenalidomide.ResultsOf 14 participants, 11 patients completed the 24 weeks of follow-up. Rapid clinical remission following lenalidomide therapy was observed. Clinical manifestations (fever, headache, altered mentation) were reversed fully by week-4 and remained stable during follow-up. A significant reduction in white blood cell (WBC) count in CSF was noted occurred at week-4 (P = 0.009). The median protein concentration in CSF decreased from 1.4 (0.7–3.2) g/L at baseline to 0.9 (0.6–1.4) at week-4 (P = 0.004). The median albumin concentration in CSF decreased from 79.2 (48.4–149.8) mg/L at baseline to 55.3 (38.3–89.0) mg/L at week-4 (P = 0.011). The WBC count, protein level, and albumin level in CSF remained stable and approached a normal range through week-24. There was no significant change in immunoglobulin-G, intracranial pressure (ICP), or chloride-ion concentration at each visit. Brain MRI demonstrated multiple lesions to be absorbed post-therapy. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α granulocyte colony stimulating factor, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-17A decreased significantly during 24-week follow-up. Two (14.3%) patients had mild skin rash, which resolved spontaneously. Lenalidomide-related serious adverse events were not observed.ConclusionLenalidomide could improve persistent intracranial inflammation in HIV-CM patients significantly and was well tolerated without serious adverse events observed. And the additional randomized controlled study is required to further validate the finding.

A Unique Multiplex ELISA to Profile Growth Factors and Cytokines in Cerebrospinal Fluid.

Multiplex arrays designed for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are robust and cost-effective for profiling biomarkers. Identification of relevant biomarkers in biological matrices or fluids helps in the understanding of disease pathogenesis. Here, we describe a sandwich ELISA-based multiplex assay to assess growth factor and cytokine levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples derived from multiple sclerosis patients, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients, and control subjects without any neurological disorder. Results indicate that multiplex assay designed for the sandwich ELISA method is a unique, robust, and cost-effective method for profiling growth factors and cytokines present in CSF samples.

Cerebrospinal fluid interleukin-6 is a potential diagnostic biomarker for central nervous system involvement in adult acute myeloid leukemia.

We evaluated the correlation between cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokine levels and central nervous system (CNS) involvement in adult acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The study sample consisted of 90 patients diagnosed with AML and 20 with unrelated CNS involvement. The AML group was divided into two sub-groups: those with (CNS+, n=30) and without CNS involvement (CNS-, n=60). We used a cytometric bead assay to measure CSF interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-6, and IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, and IL-17A. We used receiver operating characteristic curves to evaluate the ability of CSF cytokine levels to identify CNS involvement in adult AML. CSF IL-6 levels were significantly higher in CNS+adult AML patients and positively correlated with the lactate dehydrogenase levels (r=0.738, p<0.001) and white blood cell (WBC) count (r=0.455, p=0.012) in the blood, and the protein (r=0.686, p<0.001) as well as WBC count in the CSF (r=0.427, p=0.019). Using a CSF IL-6 cut-off value of 8.27 pg/ml yielded a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity was 80.00% and 88.46%, respectively (AUC, 0.8923; 95% CI, 0.8168-0.9678). After treating a subset of tested patients, their CSF IL-6 levels decreased. Consequently, the elevated CSF IL-6 levels remaining in CNS+ adult AML patients post-treatment were associated with disease progression. CSF IL-6 is a promising marker for the diagnosis of adult AML with CNS involvement and a crucial dynamic indicator for therapeutic response.

Cerebrospinal Fluid Interleukin-6 Is a Potential Diagnostic Biomarker for Central Nervous System Involvement in Adult Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Objective: We evaluated the relationship between cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokine levels and central nervous system (CNS) involvement in adult acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Methods: The study sample consisted of 90 patients diagnosed with AML and 20 with unrelated CNS involvement. The AML group was divided into two sub-groups: those with (CNS+, n=30) and without CNS involvement (CNS-, n=60). We used a cytometric bead assay to measure CSF interleukin (IL)-2, -4, -6, and -10, tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon-γ, and IL-17A. We used receiver operating characteristic curves to assess the ability of CSF cytokine levels to identify CNS involvement in adult AML. Results: CSF IL-6 levels were significantly higher in CNS+adult AML patients and positively correlated with the lactate dehydrogenase levels (r=0.625, p<0.001) and white blood cell (WBC) count (r=0.534, p=0.001) in the blood, as well as the protein (r=0.404, p=0.027) and WBC count in the CSF (r=0.459, p=0.011). Using a CSF IL-6 cut-off value of 8.27 pg/ml yielded a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity was 89.29% and 88.46%, respectively (AUC, 0.9184; 95% CI, 0.8568-0.9800). After treating a subset of tested patients, their CSF IL-6 concentration decreased. Consequently, the elevated CSF IL-6 levels remaining in CNS+ adult AML patients post-treatment were associated with disease progression. Conclusion: CSF IL-6 is a promising marker for the diagnosis of adult AML with CNS involvement and a crucial dynamic indicator for therapeutic response.

Cerebrospinal fluid cytokines in geriatric patients with depressive disorders: A retrospective case-control study.

Central nervous system inflammation might play a role in patients with depressive disorders. This hypothesis is supported by studies reporting increased cerebrospinal fluid levels of the inflammatory markers interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in patients with ongoing depression. In this case-control study, we aimed to examine whether these findings also applied to depressed patients in a geriatric population. Cerebrospinal fluid cytokine analyses were performed on 15 patients (age >60 years) with depressive disorders and 45 age– and sex matched controls (patients with headache or idiopathic facial palsy). IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and transforming growth factor beta 1 were included in the statistical analyses. Patients with depression had significantly lower cerebrospinal fluid levels of IL-6 as compared to controls (p = 0.014) in the univariate analysis. The finding was, however, no longer statistically significant after correction for age and body mass index (p = 0.097). Overall, this study indicates that the cytokines included in this study are not significantly altered in geriatric patients with depression. Future studies exploring cerebrospinal fluid cytokine levels should include corrections for possible confounding factors.

Cytokines and chemokines profile in encephalitis patients: A meta-analysis

Encephalitis is caused by autoimmune or infectious agents marked by brain inflammation. Investigations have reported altered concentrations of the cytokines in encephalitis. This study was conducted to determine the relationship between encephalitis and alterations of cytokine levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum. We found possibly suitable studies by searching PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science, systematically from inception to August 2021. 23 articles were included in the meta-analysis. To investigate sources of heterogeneity, subgroup analysis and sensitivity analysis were conducted. The protocol of the study has been registered in PROSPERO with a registration ID of CRD42021289298. A total of 23 met our eligibility criteria to be included in the meta-analysis. A total of 12 cytokines were included in the meta-analysis of CSF concentration. Moreover, 5 cytokines were also included in the serum/plasma concentration meta-analysis. According to the analyses, patients with encephalitis had higher CSF amounts of IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, CXCL10, and TNF-α than healthy controls. The alteration in the concentration of IL-2, IL-4, IL-17, CCL2, CXCL9, CXCL13, and IFN-γ was not significant. In addition, the serum/plasma levels of the TNF-α were increased in encephalitis patients, but serum/plasma concentration of the IL-6, IL-10, CXCL10, and CXCL13 remained unchanged. This meta-analysis provides evidence for higher CSF concentrations of IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, CXCL10, and TNF-α in encephalitis patients compared to controls. The diagnostic and prognostic value of these cytokines and chemokines should be investigated in future studies.

Central Inflammatory Cytokines in Tuberculous Meningitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

No formal agreement exists regarding central inflammatory cytokine aberrations in tuberculosis (TB). We undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies comparing cytokine levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with TB compared with controls. We searched PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for articles published up to June 22, 2021. Studies were included in the meta-analysis if they assessed unadjusted levels of cytokines in unstimulated CSF samples and drew the comparison(s) between any of the following pairs: patients with TB versus controls without central nervous system (CNS) infection and meningitis, patients with TB versus patients with meningitis of etiologies other than Mycobacterium tuberculosis, HIV-infected patients with TB versus HIV-uninfected patients with TB, and HIV-infected patients with TB versus HIV-infected patients without TB. The primary outcome was the difference in mean CSF inflammatory cytokine levels between each of the 2 groups mentioned. The standardized mean difference was chosen to measure effect using a restricted maximum-likelihood estimator random-effects model. Of 1170 records identified, 40 studies were included in the meta-analysis. We calculated effect sizes for 30 different cytokines. About half of the studies took place in South Africa and India (18 out of 40 studies). Studies were mostly (92.5%) on patients with tuberculous meningitis (TBM), with only 3 articles of patients with neurotuberculosis and spinal TB. The quality of studies was rated as low to moderate and high with a 1.2:1 ratio. Compared with controls without CNS infection and meningitis, interferon-gamma (IFNγ), interleukin (IL)-12p40, IL-17F, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, sIL-2R, transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ), TGFβ1, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) were increased in patients with TBM. Compared with patients with meningitis of etiologies other than M. tuberculosis or combined meningitis and nonmeningitis patients, patients with TBM had higher CSF concentrations of IFNγ, IL-13, and sIL-2R, whereas levels of IL-12p70, IL-15, IL-1Ra, IL-5, IL-7, IL-9, and sTNFR55 were decreased. Compared with patients with meningitis of bacterial etiologies other than M. tuberculosis, CSF levels of IFNγ and sIL-2R were increased in patients with TBM, whereas levels of IL-1Ra, IL-13, IL-17, and TNF R55-BP were decreased. Patients with TBM were not different from patients with CM for most CSF cytokines assessed, but IFNγ and IL-1β were increased. TNFα, IL-1β, IL-1Ra, IL-8, IFNγ, sIL-2R, IL-13, and IL-17 were higher in patients with TBM than those with viral or aseptic meningitis. Compared with HIV-negative patients with TBM, IFNγ, IL-10, IL-12p70, and IL-5 were decreased in HIV-positive patients with TBM, whereas IL-1β, TNFα, and IL-2 were increased. Elevated TNFα, IL-1β, IFNγ, IL-6, IL-17, and IFNα2 were found in HIV-positive patients with TBM compared with their counterparts without TBM. This study should be considered an explorative meta-analytic review, leading us to offer the best TBM-associated central inflammatory cytokines. Our study could prepare a panel of central cytokines as a potential aid in diagnosing TBM and its differentiation from meningitis of other etiologies.