Level Of Agricultural Technology Research Articles

Phenological observations on the growth and development of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) in the conditions of the Right-Bank Forest-Steppe of Ukraine

There is a need to summarise information using phenological models to develop a sustainable saffron production technology with further regulation of flowering at a certain phenological stage and determination of the appropriate flowering period to improve yield and quality under different environmental conditions. The purpose of the study is to establish the course of phenological phases of saffron growth and development in the conditions of the Right-Bank Forest-Steppe of Ukraine. Phenological observations and biometric measurements were performed in the study. According to field observations, there are a total of 6 phenological stages of saffron development. The rest period lasts from the third ten days of May to October and is divided into primary and secondary dormancy. During the primary dormant period, corms do not show external morphological changes and growth, but internal physiological and morphogenetic changes occur. In the secondary dormant period, the initial emergence of leaves and flowers and their differentiation take place. During the dormant period, saffron plants were left without aboveground organs. The flowering period falls in October. The passage of this phenological stage may be affected by changes in environmental conditions or agricultural technology. The growth of the root system began with the appearance of flowers and leaves. During the growing season, the growth of the leaf apparatus and the development of the root system continue. During this period, daughter corms are also formed from the buds of the mother corm. During the winter, the replacement corms continue to grow using the nutrient reserves of the mother corm. In early March, the development of the root system slows down and the daughter corms reach almost the final size. At the end of the growing season, the root system of the mother corm stops growing. The leaves begin to age from the top to the base. By the end of May, the daughter corms are fully developed and are preparing for the transition to a dormant state. The number of corms produced per unit area depends on the age of the plot, nutrient supply, and the level of agricultural technology. Older fields produce more corms. Due to the higher density, a larger yield of stamens is formed. Therefore, understanding the phenological reactions and influence of climatic factors on the stages of saffron growth and development in certain soil and climatic conditions is useful for future forecasting of harvest time

Influence of regional agrometeorological conditions on the yield of potatoes in the Leningrad region

Potato production is one of the main branches of crop production in the Russian Federation. The Leningrad region is the leading potato-growing region in the northwest of Russia. The sustainability of potato production depends on many factors, such as the level of agricultural technology, seed quality, soil characteristics, weather, climatic conditions, etc. Among weather and climatic factors, air temperature and precipitation are the main meteorological variables. The article analyzes the relationship between regional agrometeorological conditions and potato yields over the past 15 years. Based on the results of the study, it is possible to identify favorable weather conditions for the production of potatoes and increase its yield in the region, in order to optimize the decisions made on the sustainable provision of the population of the region with potatoes.

CASE STUDY OF SOYBEAN INOCULATION WITH BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS

Soybean is a powerful biological fixer of molecular nitrogen. Increasing the intensification of nitrogen fixation of the culture is facilitated by inoculation – the settlement of the root zone with effective strains of symbiotic nodule bacteria. Bubble symbiotic bacteria fix molecular nitrogen and transform it into a form available for cultures. Also, nodule bacteria synthesize amino acids and vitamins of group B and other biologically active substances, which in general has a positive effect on the growth and development of soybeans and ensures high crop productivity. Peculiarities of the interaction of leguminous plants and nodule bacteria in field conditions depend on a number of factors, such as the genotype of plants, species composition, the number and activity of nitrogen fixers, the properties of soils, their water and temperature regimes, and the level of agricultural technology.
 The effectiveness of soybean inoculation with biotechnological preparations based on nitrogen-fixing microorganisms was analyzed. In Ukraine, a number of biotechnological preparations on the basis of nodule bacteria such as Nitragin, Rhizotrophin, Rhizoaktiv, Rhizobophyte, Rhizohumin, Azotophyte, Azorchis have been created and tested. According to the results of the scientific literature analysis and the conducted research, a positive effect of biotechnological preparations use on the formation of nodules on soybean roots and the increase in the intensity of nitrogen fixation was established. Positive changes in the indicators of the crop yield structure under the influence of inoculation were also monitored. It has been confirmed that the productivity of soybeans has increased due to the biotechnological preparations use based on symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria. It has been proven that the inoculation of soybeans with biotechnological preparations is an effective measure that ensures an increase in the productivity of soybeans, an improvement in the quality of the obtained products, contributes to the intensification of the formation of nodules on the roots, and as a result, enhances the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.

The influence of edaphic factors on the vital state of large-flowered magnolia (<i>Magnolia grandiflora</i> L.). in the Nikitsky Botanical Gardens

The most widespread magnolia on the Southern coast of the Crimea and, in particular, in the Arboretum of the Nikitsky Botanical Gardens is the evergreen Magnolia grandiflora L., introduced in 1817. Currently, 28 generative specimens of Magnolia grandiflora of different ages grow in the Arboretum, including garden forms with different vital state. There are very few data on the relation of this species to soil conditions. For this reason, we have studied the influence of edaphic factors on the vital state of Magnolia grandiflora growing in the Arboretum of the Nikitsky Botanical Gardens. A number of limiting edaphic factors have been identified, the main of which is the high skeletal structure of the soil. The humus reserves in the soil have a positive effect on the vital state of trees. A high level of agricultural technology is the main method of improving the vital state of Magnolia grandiflora .

Evaluation of adaptivity and productivity of selected black currants hybrids

The article presents the results of estimation of adaptivity and productivity of 25 selected black currants hybrids under Bryansk region conditions. Tests have been done in 2019-2020 according to the common used programs and methods for breeding and variety testing of fruit and berries crops. The aim of the research was to evaluate the total plant state, flowering level, number of berries per a cluster, berries’ weight and productivity as well as to select the most adaptive and productive lines for their use in the future breeding work. Genotypes 8-20-227, 8-20-229 and 8-20-243 with excellent general condition and degree of flowering have been identified from the Yadrenaya x Izyumnaya family. In the formation of the overall crop, a significant place is occupied by such a component of productivity as the number of berries in the cluster. The level of manifestation of this trait is largely determined by the genetic basis of plants and significantly depends on the conditions of overwintering, the level of agricultural technology and weather conditions before and after flowering, as well as during the laying of generative buds. There are not lines with long clusters. There are some hybrids with moderate clusters (7-8 berries): 8-20-219 and 8-20-227 (Yadrenaya.Izyumnaya), 8-20-166, 8-20-185 and 8-20-177 (7-1-157.Litvinovskaya). The other lines had short clusters (5-6 berries) and very short ones (3-4 berries). The average berries’ weight was from 1.0 g (8-20-167) to 2.2 g (8-20-13). The seedlings 8-20-13 (7-2-229.Uslada) and 8-20-175 (7-1-157.Litvinovskaya) had the highest berries’ weight of 3.3 g and 3.1 g. Productivity of selected hybrid lines varied from 0.2 kg/bush (8-20-214 and 8-20-15) to 2.4 kg/bush (8-20-227). As a result of the studies carried out, genotypes 8-20-227, 8-20-229 and 8-20-223 from the Yadrenaya x Izyumnaya family, resistant to abiotic and biotic environmental factors with a productivity of 2.4, 2.2 and 2.2 kg / bush, respectively, were identified. These genotypes have been multiplied and will be further used in breeding as sources of high productivity.

Analysis of the development of grafted grape seedlings on a nursery garden of different graft-rootstock combinations

In 2019-2020, experiments were laid on the fields of the ARRIV&W – Branch of FRARC with the aim of experimentally determining the phenotypic signs of compatibility of scion-rootstock combinations with the participation of grape varieties of interspecific origin Denisovskiy and Prestige and rootstock varieties Kober 5 BB and Riparia Rupestris 101-14 introduced to the State Register of Breeding Achievements of the Russian Federation, approved for use. According to the results of the studies, it can be concluded that the selection of the optimal scion-rootstock for growing the necessary scion varieties has a direct effect on the yield of seedlings, which, with the same level of agricultural technology, will minimize production costs for inoculating seedlings and repairing grape plantations. The influence of the rootstock variety on the phenotypic characteristics of the scion variety has been established. The yield of seedlings is the most objective indicator of the compatibility of the scion-rootstock combination. According to the research results 2019-2020. it was found that the yield of first-class seedlings of the Denisovsky and Prestige varieties significantly depends on the used rootstock variety. The Riparia Rupestris 101-14 rootstock has the highest yield of seedlings of the Denisovskiy variety, 45.4%, which is 21.6% more than on the Kober 5 BB rootstock variety. On the Denisovskiy variety, the seedling yield was 48.0%, which is 39.9% more than on the Kober 5 BB rootstock variety.

Rational plough arrangement for plowing with turnover of the soil layer

The method of basic tillage in the form of dump plowing continues to be dominant in the cultivation of agricultural crops, so plows are being improved in many directions. In some models of ploughs, a full rotation of soil layers, an alternative direction of their rotation, smooth adjustment of the width of the grip, various ways of alternating left-and right-hand working bodies, and many more variations are used. The aim of the study is to summarize the latest achievements in these areas in order to design a rational plow. A rational design should combine the best performance indicators for the quality of work and energy costs as well as ease of maintenance and management of the arable unit. The proposed scheme of a hinged rotary plow can be considered rational, since it performs plowing with high quality at the level of agricultural technology. It provides a smooth state of the plowed surface, a full turn of the layers, deep burying of all plant residues and weed seeds in the soil, and aligns the ridges on the surface layer of the soil. Power consumption during plowing is reduced due to the absence of coulters, field boards, reduced plow weight and accurate orientation of the thrust force vector. The management of the ploughing unit is facilitated by automating the rotation of the working bodies, the absence of idle crossings across the field, reducing the length of the plough, the absence of side loads, as well as by more convenient adjustments.

Productivity formation features of Apple trees (<i>Malus domestica</i> Borkh.) with intermediate insertion of low-growth rootstock EM-IX in the Crime

The long-term results of studies on the formation of productivity in apple trees on the medium-sized rootstock MM-106 with an intermediate insert of a low-growth rootstock EM - IX are given. The objects of research are cultivars: Golden Delicious, Jonagold, Kimmeriya, Krymskoe with a planting pattern of 3.5 x 1.25 m and 3.5 x 1.75 m. Trees are formed according to the type of free spindle. As a result of the research, a high potential application of the combined stock (with intercalary insert) in the garden, which provides early fruiting, a rapid increase in yield, high marketability and keeping quality of fruits, is revealed. Domestic intensive gardens on a combined stock can be created in the conditions of the Crimea without any support, which saves material resources for their laying. The formation of trees according to the type of free spindle in the gardens makes it possible to compact the planting of trees in a row by 20-25% and reduce the amount of labor expended on pruning trees and harvesting 1.6 times, depending on the cultivar. Realization of the productivity potential in such gardens is determined by the high level of agricultural technology with the obligatory implementation of technological methods.

Growth dynamics of tomato fruits as a main indicator of a phytomonitor

The study of the growth dynamics of tomato fruits in greenhouses using a phytomonitor, in particular, a fruit growth sensor, shows indicators that are invisible to the human eye. Their dynamics during the day and throughout the entire period of fetal development, starting from a size of 2.7 cm to removable maturity and redness in a graphical form, allows you to quickly identify a slowdown in growth, quickly find a limiting factor and reveal the influence on the growth rate of factors such as brush rationing and cleaning other fruits in it. It must be said that the use of a phytomonitor in practice requires high qualifications of an agronomist. And if the farm does not have a sufficiently high level of agricultural technology or the staff does not know how to use the indicators of sensors, there is no point in looking for a limiting factor. For this reason, in the greenhouses of Corporation “Kombinat Teplichny” (Kiev region, the village of Kalinovka), after several years of use, they abandoned the phytomonitor, which did not recoup the funds invested in it. For Ukraine, it remains exotic, therefore, the article contains an extended description of the phytomonitor.

ПРОСТОРОВИЙ ВЗАЄМОЗВʼЯЗОК ВЛАСТИВОСТЕЙ ҐРУНТУ ТА УРОЖАЙНОСТІ КУКУРУДЗИ

Властивості ґрунту відіграють важливу роль у просторовій мінливості врожайності кукурудзи. Метою цього дослідження було оцінити роль ґрунтових факторів у закономірностях просторово-часової варіації урожайність кукурудзи на території Поліської та Лісостепової зон України. Для аналізу впливу ґрунтових факторів на урожайність кукурудзи ми використали такі показники: запа-си гумусу, pH, щільність ґрунту, вміст піску, глини чи мулу для різних ґрунтових шарів. У результаті аналізу виділено 6 головних компонент, які пояснюють 98,5 % загальної дисперсії ґрунтових показни-ків. Кожна з шести компонент проявляє найбільшу кореляцію з однією або декількома ґрунтовими змінними. Встановивши ці зв’язки, можемо визначити природу кожної головної компоненти, а та-кож відмітити на карті території, які мають підвищену чутливість до кожної з головних компо-нент. З’ясували, що динаміка врожайності кукурудзи на території дослідженого регіону є лог-логістичною моделлю. Як параметри моделі врожайності використані такі показники: нижня межа врожайності (позначає найменший рівень її за період досліджень, який спостерігався на початку та у середині 90-х років минулого століття); ухил кривої тренду, показує швидкість змін урожайності в часі; час з початку досліджень, потрібний для досягнення половинного від максимального рівня зростання урожайності та одночасно момент найбільшої швидкості зростання урожайності; най-вищий рівень врожайності, за якого при наявному рівні агротехнологій врожайність визначається саме біотичним потенціалом території. За допомогою регресійного аналізу встановили взає-мозв’язок між параметрами врожайності кукурудзи та ґрунтовими показниками. Встановлено, що ухил логарифмічної моделі, який визначає потенційну швидкість росту врожайності, найбільше за-лежить від запасу гумусу у ґрунті. Нижня і верхня границі врожайності кукурудзи негативно коре-люють із вмістом піску у ґрунті. А час настання різкого зростання врожайності також найбіль-шою мірою залежить від гранулометричного складу ґрунту, причому до вмісту піску має позитивну кореляцію.

The influence of crops on the agrochemical properties of alluvial soils of the central floodplain of the Moksha River

Studies have shown that long-term cultivation of agricultural crops is influenced the agrochemical properties of alluvial soils. The perennial herbs affect the content of humus in the soil. In the sod layer under them is being 6,4–6,8 % of organic matter, in the subsurface – 5,3–5,9 %. Down the profile is reduced to 2.2–3.8 %. With long-term cultivation of potatoes, which after itself contains a little amount of root residues, the processes of decomposition of organic substances in the soil prevail over the processes of their synthesis. depends on Accordingly the content of humus is much lower (0.5–4.6 %). Alluvial soils under crops of the perennial herbs were characterized by neutral and slightly acidic active reaction of soil solution (pH of water extract is 6.5–7.5, pH of salt extract is 5.5–6.8). Under potatoes, the pH of the aqueous extract is reduced to 5,9–6,9, salt to 5,4–6,7, which is probably due to an increase in the pH of the upper horizons as a result of mineral fertilizers. Hydrolytic acidity of floodplain soils is rather low in all variants (1,1–2,7 mg/100 g of soil), it is characterized as neutral. The index of the sum of the exchange bases to a greater extent depends on the particle size distribution. Accordingly, it is high both under the perennial herbs and under potatoes. The studied alluvial soils are almost completely filled with bases. The value of this indicator is quite high: 91-97 %. Moreover, under the perennial herbs the index is 1-3 % in arable and 1-4 % in sub-arable horizons higher than under potatoes. The soils of the floodplain of The Moksha river are low in phosphorus and potassium in all variants of the experiment. Just above these figures were under the potatoes due to greater cultivation. With an increase in the level of agricultural technology, saturation of crop turnover with perennial grasses, a justified system of fertilization, the agrochemical properties of alluvial soils of the Central floodplain of The Moksha river are favorable for the stable harvest yields of vegetable and field crops.

Wpływ poziomu agrotechniki na choroby pszenżyta ozimego (Triticosecale Wittm. ex A. Camus) badane w ramach Porejestrowego Doświadczalnictwa Odmianowego

The aim of the research was to evaluate the impact of agricultural methods on disease infestation of winter triticale, studied as a part of post-registration variety examination. The study was conducted as a three-year field experiment with the use of randomized complete block design and repeated twice at the Field Experimental Station IPP – NRI Winna Góra. The field experiments studied 20 (in 2017 and 2018) and 22 (in 2019) varieties of winter triticale. In the experiment, it was possible to observe infection of plants by the following diseases: powdery mildew, brown rust, husk and leaf septoria, rhynchosporium disease, fusarium head blight and stem base diseases. The obtained results indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in the level of infestation of varieties by observed diseases, while using standard and intensive-level agricultural methods. The only variety that showed statistically significant differences in leaf septoria infection, between the applied levels of agricultural technology, was Meloman in 2018. The highest average resistance to infestation by this disease was observed while using intensive agricultural methods. Celem badań była ocena wpływu sposobu agrotechniki na występowanie chorób pszenżyta ozimego w ramach Porejestrowego Doświadczalnictwa Odmianowego. Badanie było przeprowadzone w trzyletnim doświadczeniu polowym, założonym w układzie bloków losowanych kompletnych, w dwóch powtórzeniach na terenie Polowej Stacji Doświadczalnej IOR – PIB Winna Góra i obejmowało 20 (w latach 2017 i 2018) i 22 (w 2019 roku) odmian pszenżyta ozimego. W doświadczeniu obserwowano porażenie roślin przez następujące choroby: mączniaka prawdziwego, rdzę brunatną, septoriozę liści, septoriozę plew, rynchosporiozę, fuzariozę kłosów oraz choroby podstawy źdźbła. Uzyskane wyniki wskazują, że nie ma istotnych statystycznie różnic w stopniu porażenia odmian przez obserwowane choroby przy zastosowaniu agrotechniki na poziomie standardowym i intensywnym. Jedynie, dla odmiany Meloman w 2018 roku zaobserwowano istotne statystycznie różnice w porażeniu septoriozą liści między zastosowanymi poziomami agrotechniki, przy czym większą średnią odporność na porażenie tą chorobą zaobserwowano przy zastosowaniu intensywnego poziomu agrotechniki.

Nutrient extraction and exportation by common bean cultivars under different fertilization levels: II - micronutrients

Where the level of agricultural technology is higher, common bean cultivars with a higher yield potential possibly require greater amounts of micronutrients. In Brazil however, there is a lack of information about the micronutrient extraction and exportation by the main grown cultivars. The objective of this study was to evaluate micronutrient (B, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn) extraction and exportation by common bean cultivars Pérola and IAC Alvorada, under different levels of NPK fertilization, on a dystroferric Red Nitosol, in Botucatu, São Paulo State, Brazil. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block (split plot) design with four replications. The plots consisted of six treatments based on a 2 x 3 factorial model, represented by two cultivars and three NPK levels (PD0 - 'Pérola' without fertilization, PD1 - 'Pérola' with 50 % of recommended fertilization, PD2 - 'Pérola' with 100 % of recommended fertilization, AD0 - 'IAC Alvorada' without fertilization, AD1 - 'IAC Alvorada' with 50 % of recommended fertilization, and AD2 - 'IAC Alvorada' with 100 % of recommended fertilization) and subplots sampled seven times during the cycle. Higher levels of NPK fertilization increased micronutrient extraction by both cultivars, and treatments with 100 % of recommended NPK fertilization extracted on average 167 g B, 58 g Cu, 1,405 g Fe, 1,213 g Mn and 211 g Zn per hectare. Regardless of the treatment, the highest demand period for B, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn in both cultivars occurred at the R7 stage (pod formation), i.e. 42 to 55 days after emergence (DAE). The amount of B, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn exported depended mainly on the level of NPK fertilization used, with values per hectare ranging from 38 to 90 g of B, 12 to 26 g of Cu, 222 to 568 g of Fe 234 to 467 g of Mn, and 40 to 96 g of Zn.

Winter hardiness and freezing tolerance of cherry varieties in the southern steppe of Ukraine

Aim. Investigation of yield capacity and resistance to winter and spring unfavorable conditions in promising cherry varieties included in the State Register of plants qualified for growing inUkraine.Methods, Source Material. The investigation was carried out in the plantations of the Melitopol experimental station of the Institute of Irrigating Horticulture nd. a. M. F. Sidorenko of NAAS in the Southern steppe of Ukraine according to Methods of State Variety Trials of Agricultural Plants for Suitability for Growing in Ukraine and Program of Methods of Variety Trials of Fruit, Berry and Nut Cultures in 2004–2010. The source material was three introduced varieties, 37 varieties of cherry/sweet cherry origin bred in theInstitute ofIrrigating Horticulture nd. a. M. F. Sidorenko of NAAS (15 of them are in the State register, 22 varieties are in competitive variety trials).Results and Discussion. It was established that due to winter unfavorable conditions the number of winterkilled reproductive buds ranged from 8.0 % to 90.0 %, and affected flowers – from 27.2 % to 95.0 %. The data on tolerance of cherry varieties show that the number of winterkilled reproductive buds depends on the year conditions by 62.25 %, and the number of affected flowers – by 74.86 %. The contribution of variety peculiarities is 9.94 % and 8.10 %, respectively. Spring frosts at the end of April had more negative impact on the cherry yield capacity than winter unfavorable conditions: the recorded freezing-out of pistils varied from 1.3 % to 99.3 %. The number of frozen flowers due to spring frosts was found to be dependent on the weather conditions by 71.88 %, which is 16-fold greater than the contribution of genetic peculiarities of varieties – 4.41 %.Conclusions. Winter hardiness and freezing tolerance of cherry varieties are not determinating factors of yield capacity; a level of agricultural technology and a complex of other genetic traits are of great importance.

Typology of causes of poverty: The perception of Iranian farmers

Causal attributions are important mediators of future behaviour because once a cause is assigned; a commensurate action can be taken. The aims of this research were to find how Iranian farmers attribute the causes of poverty, to provide a typology of attribution of causes of poverty as perceived by Iranian farmers and to compare socio-economic characteristics and contextual conditions of farmers based on their causal attribution of poverty type. Findings revealed that 50% of respondents had structuralistic, almost 30% had individualistic, and about 20% hold fatalistic attitudes towards the causes of poverty. Farmers with individualistic attitudes towards the causes of poverty had higher quality of life, well-being, level of agricultural technology, agricultural production, used insurance more often, they had more land, income, access to agricultural extension services and practiced sustainable agriculture more often. Farmers with fatalistic attitudes towards the causes of poverty had the worst condition with regard to the above variables. However, those who had structuralistic attitudes, stood somewhere between the two previous groups. Based on findings, a number of poverty alleviation recommendations are made.

A Trend of Japanese Peasant Farms in Recent Years

When classified according to the size of farms, Japanese peasants showed before World War II a tendency that the middle class cultivating 1 to 2 hectares of land were steadily increasing in number, and that those cultivating less acreage and those doing more were both decreasing constantly, while the total number of farms was increasing slightly. Such middle class peasants were, under the level of agricultural technology and the rural living conditions of those days, typical“small peasants”who managed their farms only by family labor and, at the same time, could support ordinary life out of the income from their own farms. The tendency of such peasants to constant increase has been called in general“a tendency to standardization of small peasants”.After World War II, especially after the 1950's when Japanese economy was back to its normal state, the peasants have shown an entirely different tendency till today. While the total number has been decreasing fairly rapidly, the number of relatively large scale managements has been consistently increasing and that of small or petty ones decreasing. Moreover, the diverging point of both groups, or the scale of the axis management has become larger. It is 2.5ha. during these ten years, and larger managements are increasing in number, while smaller ones decreasing. The rate of increase becomes higher as the scale becomes larger.There are various opinions among scholars as to the implication of such resolution of farm managements into two groups. Some think this indicates the development of capitalism in Japanese agriculture, where the capitalistic managements are growing in the upper group, whereas most peasants in the lower group becoming wage laborers. However, it is obvious on analysis that most managements of the upper group are those of“small peasants”who depend only upon family labor. On the other hand, peasants of the lower group have always side jobs, and depend mainly on the offfarm income.This change has been brought about by the two facts: first, the scale managed by family labor is greatly enlarged compared with prewar level as a result of higher labor productivity realized by agricultural mechanization, and secondly, peasants must enlarge the scale of management to support their family budgets only with farm income, because the level of consumption has risen markedly. In this sense, the tendency might properly be called“standardization of large-sized small peasants”, and yet it is the tendency to“standardization of small peasants”only in a different form.This large-sized small peasants, whose proportion is very small among the total, supply nearly 70% of the whole agricultural products brought to market today. The central theme of agricultural policy must be to develop these managements steadily and smoothly.

Distribution of Agricultural Labor Productivity in Japan and Its Change, 1960-1975

The purpose of this study is to present the mesoscale distribution of agricultural labor productivity (A. L. P.) in Japan and its change during the period from 1960 to 1975 and to analyze statistically the relationship between A. L. P. and several factors.A. L. P. is defined as gross agricultural income (ten thousands yen per farm operator mainly engaged in farming). The data sources for this study are the Census of Agriculture in Japan and the Agricultural Income Statistics of Japan. For this study Japan was divided into 305 divisions through agglomerating several municipalities into one statistical unit.The first step of the analysis was the preparation of maps of A. L. P. in 1960, 1965, 1970, and 1975. Then the change of areal distributions of A. L. P. were investigated by comparing these series of maps.Subsequently, the polynominal trend surface analysis was applied for analyzing the general distribution pattern and the change from 1960 to 1975. In addition, multiple regression analysis was used to clarify the relationship between A. L. P. and the main factors.Main results obtained are as follows:1. A. L. P., even if the increase due to inflation of the agricultural price was eliminated, has increased 3.5 times in 1975 compared to 1960. Regional variation of A. L. P. decreased temporary in 1965, but has expanded continuously until 1975. A. L. P. goes in the opposite direction to agricultural land productivity.2. The examination in the types of change of A. L. P. showed that the number of districts remaining in the same class between the census have decreased except for the areas with very high score and very low score. Recently there is general tendency for a gradual increase of the inter-class movement (Fig. 2).3. 1st order trend surface of A. L. P. shows the general distribution pattern which is high in the northeastern parts in Japan, and low in the southwestern Japan from 1960 to 1970. Since 1970, it is high in the north and low in the southern parts of Japan (Fig. 4-7). If we raise the level of generalization of these patterns, we can see the appearance of the tendency for lower A. L. P. in the region facing the Pacific Ocean. The region centered around Tokyo, Kanagawa, and Shizuoka prefecture shows a remarkable decrease of A. L. P. On the other hand, the zone from Hokuriku district to Osaka shows a considerable increase.4. Multiple regression formula developed in this study, contained six variables, i. e., climate, agricultural labor input, management units, level of agricultural technology, level of commercialization, and quality of agricultural labor force as independent variables (Table 3). Using standardized partial regression coefficients, level of commercialization had the largest contributions in 1960, 1965, and 1970, and quality of agricultural labor force was the second. In 1975, the agricultural labor input was the most important, and the level of commercialization ranked next (Table 5). The inspection of the time change of the standardized partial regression coefficients for the three factors during the study period shows that the largest contributions of both the level of commercialization and the quality of agricultural labor force decreased and that of agricultural labor input is increased. These multiple regression formula containing these variables can explain considerable parts of the total three variance in agricultural labor productivity in the each census year.

Michael Confino's Systemes agraires et progres agricole

During his visit to Denmark in 1964, someone asked Chairman Khrushchev why agriculture in his socialist homeland lagged so far behind agriculture of capitalistic societies. condition of agriculture, he replied, doesn't depend on social system. It depends on manure. That was Khrushchev on defensive, calling on his peasant background to claim that retardation of Soviet agriculture was result of deficiencies in its techniques rather than of inhibitive effects of communistic social order. Professor Confino tells this anecdote in his book in order to express his disagreement with Khrushchev's opinion. The level of agricultural technology, he maintains, depends in large measure on the social structure, on social organization of production, on social cleavage, on economic tonality and orientation, all of which are in turn determined by social (p. 15). Mr. Confino's point of view is, of course, not remarkable among students of these matters. The book he has written, however, is remarkable. He shows a sensitivity, a philosophical bent, and a literary style rare among historians-at least among historians of economic matters. He employs intuition and imaginative insights based upon solid historical fact. He is resolved to penetrate into what he calls mentality of people about whom he writes; indeed, his book could well be described as a study in psychological history. In an earlier book (which contained these same admirable qualities), Mr. Confino explained his method-and mission-with these words: To seek out underlying unity of social and intellectual life, to grasp 'sense' of existence of men at a given time and place, one must turn to realities, to material structures and conjunctures, to 'climates of sensibilities,' and to importance that these ideas and beliefs had for these men.2 Mr. Confino divides his book into three parts. In first section he establishes predominance of three-field system of tillage in older regions of settlement (the provinces of center and of northern tier of Black Earth). He argues convincingly that this method of tillage had an affinity for poor soil and, because of its inherent inefficiency, favored cultivation of rye and oats rather than of higher-yielding but harder-to-raise wheat and barley. The three-field method of rotation was characterized, too, by certain social institutions notably, large villages and collective servitudes -which allowed rights of pasture on common and fallow to peasants. In second part of book he discusses dissatisfaction of a few landowners and agronomists with existing farming practices, particularly