Levels Of Aflatoxin Contamination Research Articles

Exposure assessment and risk characterisation of aflatoxins in randomly collected rice samples from local markets of Hyderabad, India

Aflatoxin (AF) poisoning of staple foods, such as rice, is caused by fungal contamination by Aspergillus species. These AFs are genotoxic, carcinogenic and suppress the immune system. Hence, the present study was conducted to elucidate the prevalence of AF contamination in rice samples collected from local markets of Hyderabad, Telangana, India. The rice samples collected were analysed for AF by using HPLC-fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). Based on AF contamination levels and dietary intake of rice, the health risk was assessed by the margin of exposure (MOE) and liver cancer risk in adults, adolescence and children. The percentage detected contamination with AFB1 and AFB2 of rice samples was 54% and 34%, with the concentration ranging between 0–20.35 µg/kg and 0–1.54 µg/kg, respectively. Three rice samples exceeded the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) total AF acceptable limit of 15 µg/kg. The average MOE values were 53.73, 50.58 and 35.69 (all <10,000) for adults, adolescence and children, respectively. The average liver cancer risk associated with rice consumption in the population of Hyderabad was found to be 0.27, 0.28 and 0.40 hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cases/year/100,000 individuals in adults, adolescence and children, respectively. This study revealed an adverse health risk to population of Hyderabad due to consumption of AF contaminated rice.

High Levels of Fungal and Aflatoxin Contamination of the Production Stages of the Local Brew (Ajono) consumed in Uganda

Local brew commonly known as Ajono is a widely consumed alcoholic beverage in Uganda. Handling practices along the production stages of the local brews may create a conducive environment for fungal colonization. This study aimed to assess fungal and aflatoxin contamination along the different production stages of Ajono from Soroti District in Eastern Uganda. A total of 180 samples were collected from the different stages along Ajono production. An interview guide was used to assess the processing practices while fungal contamination was assessed using standard microbiological methods. The study found that there are three main stages during Ajono production, namely; millet grain, fermented paste, and the liquid (Ajono) stages. During the paste fermentation stage, brewers used plastic drums (50%), pits (47%) or pots (3%) as fermentation vessels. Samples from plastic drum fermentation vessels had higher levels of fungal contamination than those from the pits and pots. Furthermore, several moulds genera including Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., Alternaria spp., Rhizopus spp., Penicillium spp., Cladosporium spp., and Acremonium spp. were identified along the production stages, with Aspergillus spp. as the most prevalent moulds at all stages of Ajono production. Two yeast genera; Saccharomyces spp. and Candida spp. were also isolated. Total Aflatoxin B and G group was detected along the production stages of Ajono with the highest prevalence (78.6%) seen in the liquid Ajono from pit fermenters and 68.8% in drum fermenters. Overall, all three stages of Ajono production; millet grain, fermented paste, and the liquid Ajono stages were highly contaminated with aflatoxigenic fungi which may cause adverse health effects under continued and sustained consumption of the brew

Aflatoxin contamination of household stored grains for smallholder farmers in Dodoma, Tanzania

Abstract Aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites, produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which contaminate stored grains including maize, groundnuts and sunflower seeds and cause negative health effects to both humans and animals. The aim of this study was to determine the level of aflatoxins contamination of household stored grains (maize, groundnuts and sunflower seeds) in Dodoma, Tanzania. Immuno-affinity high performance liquid chromatography with post column derivatization was used to analyse AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2 and total aflatoxins in 45 samples. Out of 45 samples, 38% were contaminated with aflatoxins; the highest mean levels of total aflatoxins were observed in groundnuts (269 μg/kg) followed by maize (74.9 μg/kg) and lastly sunflower (0.2 μg/kg). About 27% of maize and 67% of groundnut samples had higher levels of AFB1 and total aflatoxins beyond the East African Community limits of 5 and 10 μg/kg, respectively. The mean moisture contents were 9.6% for maize, 4.1% for groundnuts and 5.7% for sunflower seeds. These moisture levels were far below the recommended safe storage moisture levels of 13.5% for maize, 8% for groundnuts and 10% for sunflower seeds. Such moisture levels would not allow mould growth and subsequent aflatoxins contamination. It suggests that contamination could have occurred in the field or during the drying stages before reaching the observed moisture levels. Therefore, there is a need to conduct further study to assess aflatoxin contamination in the field, during drying operations and storage to identify the critical stage for intervention. Moreover, farmers should be trained on best management and handling practices to prevent contamination.

Impact of conservation farming practices on Aspergillus population density, peanut aflatoxin level, and exposure risk in Zambia

Aflatoxin contamination in peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) by aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus spp. is a serious problem worldwide affecting human health and restricting trade. Recently, conservation agriculture practices such as minimum tillage, crop rotation, soil surface cover, intercropping, and planting in basins alongside trees that enhance soil fertility, have been introduced in Zambia as tools to conserve soil moisture, increase peanut yield, and reduce the risk of aflatoxin contamination. However, a limited understanding exists of the impact of conservation agriculture on Aspergillus population densities in the soil and aflatoxin concentrations in crops grown under conservation agriculture. This study assessed the impact of conservation agriculture on (i) Aspergillus communities profile in soil cropped to peanuts, (ii) peanut aflatoxin contamination levels, and (iii) influences of the practices on liver cancer risks as a result of consuming peanuts grown in basins, peanuts grown in basins in farms having Gliricidia sepium trees (agroforestry), and peanuts grown on ridges (conventional tillage). Densities of Aspergillus spp. in soils ranged from 10 to 7,400 CFU/g (mean = 295 CFU/g). The densities differed among farming techniques (p = 0.0011) with conventional tillage (357 CFU/g) supporting higher densities than agroforestry (296 CFU/g) and peanuts grown in basins (230 CFU/g). Aspergillus communities were dominated by fungi with S morphology (55%; which is composed of several morphologically similar species), followed by A. parasiticus (34%), and the L morphotype of A. flavus (11%). Over 60% of the peanut samples were contaminated but there were no differences among farming techniques. Mean aflatoxin contents in peanuts were 110, 99, and 87, μg/kg for agroforestry, conventional tillage, and peanuts grown in basins, respectively. Probable daily aflatoxin intake ranged from 12.7 to 767.1 ng/kg body weight/d, depending on the age of consumers. The estimated liver cancer risk due to consumption of raw peanuts (0.334 to 20.128 cases/100,000 persons/year) was highest among children below 5 years and least for young adults. The results showed that growing peanuts in basins has the potential to reduce Aspergillus populations in soil. Possibly, planting in basins and agroforestry had minimal effect on water runoff and did not support sufficient moisture retention in the soil to reduce Aspergillus spp. densities and aflatoxin accumulation in the peanuts. Thus, more research is needed to improve the effectiveness of peanut cultivation in basins in shaping the Aspergillus species profiles for ultimately reducing aflatoxin in peanuts to safe levels. Given the high exposure of Zambia’s population, especially children, and that contaminated food is the major source of exposure, it is essential that appropriate technical, policy and institutional measures are promoted for aflatoxin mitigation in Zambia.

The Classification of Aflatoxin Contamination Level in Cocoa Beans using Fluorescence Imaging and Deep learning

Aflatoxin contamination in cacao is a significant problem in terms of trade losses and health effects. This calls for the need for a non-invasive, precise, and effective detection strategy. This research contribution is to determine the best deep-learning model to classify the aflatoxin contamination level in cocoa beans based on fluorescence images and deep learning to improve performance in the classification. The process involved inoculating and incubating Aspergillus flavus (6mL/100g) to obtain aflatoxin-contaminated cocoa beans for 7 days during the incubation period. Liquid Mass Chromatography (LCMS) was used to quantify the aflatoxin in order to categorize the images into different levels including “free of aflatoxin”, “contaminated below the limit”, and “contaminated above the limit”. 300 images were acquired through a mini studio equipped with UV lamps. The aflatoxin level was classified using several pre-trained CNN approaches which has high accuracy such as GoogLeNet, SqueezeNet, AlexNet, and ResNet50. The sensitivity analysis showed that the highest classification accuracy was found in the GoogLeNet model with optimizer: Adam and learning rate: 0.0001 by 96.42%. The model was tested using a testing dataset and obtain accuracy of 96% based on the confusion matrix. The findings indicate that combining CNN with fluorescence images improved the ability to classify the amount of aflatoxin contamination in cacao beans. This method has the potential to be more accurate and economical than the current approach, which could be adapted to reduce aflatoxin's negative effects on food safety and cacao trade losses.

Survey of Knowledge of Moulds and Aflatoxin Levels of Grains Sold in Markets for Human Consumption within North-Central-States Capital Cities, Nigeria

Aflatoxins, categorized as carcinogenic mycotoxins, were studied in grains sold for human consumption across North-Central Capital Cities from December 2022 to November 2023. The survey encompassed six cities (Jos, Minna, Markurdi, Lafiya, Lokoja, Ilorin) and utilized structured questionnaires to gather data. Knowledge levels regarding mould infections and aflatoxins contamination were assessed using descriptive statistics, while demographic influences were analysed via independent t-tests. Results indicated that 32.5% to 42.5% of respondents identified moulds infections in grains, while 34.2% to 90.8% were unaware of aflatoxin's association with liver cancer. Notably, females demonstrated higher knowledge scores (71.50±8.34) compared to males (48.00±8.32), individuals with ≥ secondary education exhibited greater understanding (91.17±7.57) than those with less than secondary education (25.83±7.57), and respondents aged &gt; 25 years scored higher (87.85±9.60) than those aged ≤ 25 years (30.80±6.99). Aflatoxin contamination levels exceeded the European limit (not greater than 4.0 µg/kg) in 6.7% of samples, with statistically significant differences observed (p ≤ 0.05). The findings underscore the importance of regional enlightenment campaigns regarding mould infections in grains and the health risks associated with aflatoxins for both humans and animals. Such initiatives are crucial for enhancing public awareness and promoting practices that mitigate aflatoxin exposure, ultimately safeguarding human and animal health within the surveyed area.

Spherical Fe2O3 nanoparticles inhibit the production of aflatoxins (B1 and B2) and regulate total soluble solids and titratable acidity of peach fruit

Aflatoxin is a group I carcinogen and causes significant public health and food safety risks, throughout the world. This study was carried out to assess the levels of aflatoxin contamination in diseased peach (Prunus persica L.) fruit and their control using myco-synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe2O3 NPs). Diseased peach fruit were diagnosed to be infected with Aspergillus flavus. The isolated pathogen was cultured under UV light (365 nm) and exposed to ammonium hydroxide (31 %) vapors, which confirmed its ability to produce aflatoxin. For the control of this disease, Fe2O3 NPs were synthesized in the filtrate of a biocontrol fungus (Trichoderma harzianum) and characterized before analyzing their potential in disease control. FTIR spectrum described the presence of capping and reducing agents (secondary amines, alcohol, alkyne and aromatic compounds) on the surface of Fe2O3 NPs. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) described the crystalline size (7.78), while the spherical shape of Fe2O3 NPs was described by the SEM analysis. The EDX spectrum indicated the successful formation of Fe2O3 NPs by showing strong signals of iron (74.38 %). All concentrations displayed mycelial growth inhibition, in vitro and the greatest growth reduction (65.4 %) was observed at 1 mg/ml concentration of NPs. At the same concentration of Fe2O3 NPs, significant control of fruit rot of peach was also observed, in vivo. Treatment of Fe2O3 NPs maintained higher soluble solids, sucrose, total sugar, ascorbic acid, titratable acidity and firmness of peach fruit. Diseased fruit were further investigated for the presence and detection of aflatoxins. All three methods viz. thin layer chromatography (TLC), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) confirmed a higher production of aflatoxins in control plants, while this production was significantly reduced in Fe2O3 NPs-treated peach fruit.

Evidence of the effect of pre and postharvest practices on aflatoxin contamination in the Forest and Savannah ecozones of Ghana

Food contamination by aflatoxins is a global concern due to their adverse effects on food security, trade, and health. This study contributes to the evidence on the connection between pre and postharvest practices of maize farmers and the levels of aflatoxin contamination, based on a survey of 400 farmers across Forest and Savannah zones in Ghana. The survey involving a semi-structured questionnaire was conducted between September 2019 and March 2020. Information on preharvest practices such as weed control, fertilizer application, and irrigation; and postharvest practices such as drying, shelling, storage, and pest control among others were explored by the questionnaire. A multistage sampling process was employed to determine the sample size of four hundred respondents. One kg of maize was randomly sampled from the farmers for aflatoxin analysis. The results showed that the least aflatoxin type found in the maize sample was Aflatoxin G2 (0.207 μg/kg), while the highest was Afltoxin B1 (9.618 μg/kg). The Savannah zone recorded a lower contamination level of 11.63 μg/kg than the Forest zone of 23.53 μg/kg. Aflatoxin G1 and Aflatoxin G2 were less prevalent among the samples than Aflatoxins B1 and B2. The contamination levels in both zones exceeded the maximum limits, set by Codex, and EU at 10 μg/kg, and 4 μg/kg respectively. Only the Savannah zone contamination level met the maximum limit of contamination of Ghana which is set at 15 μg/kg. About 73% of farmers who demonstrated awareness of aflatoxin contamination had their produce within the maximum limit of Ghana, CODEX, and the EU. Preharvest practices such as fertilizer application, hoeing, and chemical weed control lowered aflatoxin contamination in both zones. The results showed that awareness creation and adoption of pre and postharvest interventions are vital in reducing aflatoxin contamination in the two ecozones.

Aflatoxin contamination of animal feeds and its predictors among dairy farms in Northwest Ethiopia: One Health approach implications.

In dairy farming, animal feed is the first line of food safety. Animal feed can become contaminated and spoiled on farms or in storage facilities due to the diverse microorganisms that are naturally present around or on various animal feeds. This study aims to assess the level of aflatoxin and predictors in animal feeds among dairy farms in the South Gondar Zone of Ethiopia. A total of 100 samples of each animal feed ingredient (atella, hay, commercial concentrates, and cut and carry pasture) were obtained. A total of 400 animal feed ingredient samples were tested separately among 100 randomly chosen dairy farmers for aflatoxin analysis. Simultaneously, swabs from cow udders and water samples were also collected. Using a structured and pretested questionnaire, the knowledge and practices of animal feed administrators responsible for managing animal feed were also evaluated. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression models were used to identify determinants. From the total animal feed analyzed, 96% was positive for aflatoxins. Feed storage facilities, feed storage duration, education of animal feed administrators, mixed concentrates, and previous training were found to be associated with aflatoxin contamination levels in animal feeds. The levels of aflatoxin contamination in animal feeds were found to be higher than the recommended limit; these findings suggest the spread of aflatoxin contamination between humans and animals. Furthermore, the occurrence of aflatoxins in the environment results from milk becoming contaminated with aflatoxins. A One Health strategy should therefore receive special consideration to tackle such problems and safeguard consumer safety.

English

Widespread aflatoxin contamination of maize is a public health hazard in Sub-Saharan Africa and its management requires strategies which are implemented both at pre- and post-harvest stages of cereal production. This study aimed at assessing knowledge and practices for aflatoxin contamination of maize and factors associated with adoption of artisanal aflatoxin control technologies. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 315 household heads that were practicing subsistence maize farming in Kitui, Kenya. Data were analyzed to determine farm level factors which were associated with aflatoxin contamination. Farmers in uplands areas had partial knowledge on occurrence of aflatoxin at pre-harvest stages of maize growth and effects of aflatoxins on animal health and productivity. Adoption of aflatoxin control technologies was higher in farms located in lowland areas as compared to uplands. There was evidence of association between adoption of control technologies and farm level factors including farmer&rsquo;s knowledge on aflatoxin contamination, farmer&rsquo;s level of education and location of farm. The results demonstrate a knowledge gap on aflatoxin contamination and farm level barriers for adoption of aflatoxin control technologies. The findings call for enhanced capacity building activities through extension to influence change on farming practices for farms with high risk of aflatoxin contamination. Key words: Pre-harvest and post-harvest aflatoxin control methods, barriers for adoption, knowledge, effects of aflatoxins.

Gradient boosting and bayesian network machine learning models predict aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of maize in Illinois - First USA case study.

Mycotoxin contamination of corn results in significant agroeconomic losses and poses serious health issues worldwide. This paper presents the first report utilizing machine learning and historical aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination levels in-order-to develop models that can confidently predict mycotoxin contamination of corn in Illinois, a major corn producing state in the USA. Historical monthly meteorological data from a 14-year period combined with corresponding aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination data from the State of Illinois were used to engineer input features that link weather, fungal growth, and aflatoxin production in combination with gradient boosting (GBM) and bayesian network (BN) modeling. The GBM and BN models developed can predict mycotoxin contamination with overall 94% accuracy. Analyses for aflatoxin and fumonisin with GBM showed that meteorological and satellite-acquired vegetative index data during March significantly influenced grain contamination at the end of the corn growing season. Prediction of high aflatoxin contamination levels was linked to high aflatoxin risk index in March/June/July, high vegetative index in March and low vegetative index in July. Correspondingly, high levels of fumonisin contamination were linked to high precipitation levels in February/March/September and high vegetative index in March. During corn flowering time in June, higher temperatures range increased prediction of high levels of fumonisin contamination, while high aflatoxin contamination levels were linked to high aflatoxin risk index. Meteorological events prior to corn planting in the field have high influence on predicting aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination levels at the end of the year. These early-year events detected by the models can directly assist farmers and stakeholders to make informed decisions to prevent mycotoxin contamination of Illinois grown corn.

Characterization of the Aspergillus flavus Population from Highly Aflatoxin-Contaminated Corn in the United States.

Aflatoxin contamination of corn is a major threat to the safe food and feed. The United States Federal Grain Inspection Service (FGIS) monitors commercial grain shipments for the presence of aflatoxin. A total of 146 Aspergillus flavus were isolated from 29 highly contaminated grain samples to characterize the visual phenotypes, aflatoxin-producing potential, and genotypes to explore the etiological cause of high aflatoxin contamination of US corn. Five of the isolates had reduced sensitivity (43-49% resistant) to the fungicide azoxystrobin, with the remainder all being over 50% resistant to azoxystrobin at the discriminating dose of 2.5 µg/mL. Only six isolates of the highly aflatoxigenic S morphotype were found, and 48 isolates were non-aflatoxigenic. Analysis of the mating type locus revealed 45% MAT 1-1 and 55% MAT 1-2. The A. flavus population originating from the highly aflatoxin contaminated grain samples was compared to a randomly selected subset of isolates originating from commercial corn samples with typical levels of aflatoxin contamination (average &lt; 50 ppb). Use of simple sequence repeat (SSR) genotyping followed by principal component analysis (PCoA) revealed a similar pattern of genotypic distribution in the two populations, but greater diversity in the FGIS-derived population. The noticeable difference between the two populations was that genotypes identical to strain NRRL 21882, the active component of the aflatoxin biocontrol product Afla-Guard™, were ten times more common in the commercial corn population of A. flavus compared to the population from the high-aflatoxin corn samples. The other similarities between the two populations suggest that high aflatoxin concentrations in corn grain are generally the result of infection with common A. flavus genotypes.

The effect of harvest, sorting and drying practices on aflatoxin contamination of maize

Aflatoxins are the result of fungal metabolites that contaminate agricultural produce and can cause death to both humans and animals. The risks of using contaminated food and feed with aflatoxins have increased due to environmental factors, pre-harvest, post-harvest and socio-economic factors. This study revealed on harvesting, drying, and sorting practices that can reduce aflatoxin contamination. Experiments were designed in three districts; Kilosa, Gairo, and Mvomero with five (5) treatments replicated nine (9) times under farmers’ conditions. Samples were collected during harvesting, drying, and sorting; and analyzed for aflatoxin B1 using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) at Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS) laboratory. Analysis of variance and comparison of means for moisture content, mold levels, grain damage, and aflatoxin levels were performed using GenStat® Executable release 16 Statistical Analysis Software. Results indicated that aflatoxin contamination levels were lower at maize grain harvested into bags (456.9μg/kg) compared to maize harvesting onto the ground (889.1μg/kg). It was also observed that maize dried on tarpaulin and raised platform had significantly (p&lt;0.05) low aflatoxin levels (65.5 μg/kg, 67.1μg/kg respectively) while maize dried on the ground had higher aflatoxin infestation (179 μg/kg). Again, sorting maize by color significantly (p&lt;0.05) reduces aflatoxin contamination. These results indicate that proper postharvest management of maize, such as harvesting maize on bags, drying maize on tarpaulin, raised platform and sorting maize by color gives the lowest aflatoxin contamination levels. Hence, proper education to farmers on harvesting maize using container/bags and drying maize on raised platform to be established in farmer level.

Aflatoxins contents determination in some foodstuffs in Burkina Faso and human health risk assessment.

Aflatoxins are produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus that colonize many foodstuffs during agricultural production, harvesting, transportation, storage, and food processing. In view of these aflatoxins toxicity to humans, their presence in foods such as cereals and oilseeds constitutes a major challenge for global food security, health and nutrition. This study was therefore initiated to assess the level of aflatoxin contamination of various foodstuffs sold in urban and semi-urban markets in Burkina Faso, and to evaluate the carcinogenic risk which the consuming population is exposed to. Two hundred and twelve foodstuff samples were collected in two large cities (Ouagadougou and Bobo Dioulasso) and three semi urban localities (Cinkansé, Dakola and Niangoloko). Aflatoxins contents in foodstuffs were determined by immunoaffinity chromatography and human health risk assessment was performed by using the Monte Carlo algorithm. The aflatoxins contents determination showed that 41.50% of studied samples were contaminated with concentrations up to 182.28 μg/kg for AFB1 in peanuts. Chronic Daily Intake, calculated based on the consumption patterns assumed in this study, was estimated to be higher in large cities (CDI = 33.68 μg/kg bw in Ouagadougou and 10.18 μg/kg bw in Bobo Dioulasso) than in semi urban localities (CDI = 4.29 μg/kg bw in Cinkansé, CDI = 0.39 μg/kg bw in Dakola and CDI = 0.18 μg/kg bw in Niangoloko). The MOE determination showed that the sorghum meal and whole grain maize consumption was associated to the carcinogenic risk for public health in large cities (the percentile 95 of MOE = 3316 for rice, 4511 for peanuts, 3334 for sorghum meal and 4530 for whole grain maize). In semi urban localities, no carcinogenic risk was observed to public health. These results should inspire the country's sanitary and agricultural authorities to undertake actions to fight against the agricultural food products contamination by aflatoxins in order to safeguard the population's health.

Cloning and expression of the catalase gene (KatA) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the degradation of AFB1 by recombinant catalase.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) poses a severe threat to human and animal health. Countries worldwide have invested considerable manpower and material resources in degrading aflatoxins. Enzyme degradation is the most efficient and environmentally friendly approach for modifying aflatoxin into less toxic molecules. Catalase is commonly used as a detoxification agent to decrease the contamination levels of aflatoxins in animal feeds. This study aimed to obtain recombinant catalase via gene engineering and determined whether a recombinant catalase could degrade AFB1 . The catalase gene (KatA) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli, and the expression conditions of this recombinant catalase were optimized. The recombinant catalase was isolated and purified using Ni-chelating affinity chromatography, and its ability to degrade AFB1 was evaluated. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that the expressed of catalase was approximately 55.6kDa, which was subsequently purified using Ni-chelating affinity chromatography. The degradation rate of AFB1 by recombinant catalase in the presence of syringaldehyde was 38.79%. The degradation of AFB1 by a recombinant catalase has been reported for the first time. This study provides a new paradigm for the use of recombinant catalases in degrading AFB1 in food and feed. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Aflatoxin tests in herbal products and its quantification: Latest updates.

Aflatoxin is naturally occurring mycotoxins produced by fungi. The existence of aflatoxin in herbal medicines is a well-known issue. The detection of aflatoxin with good sensitivity and also that is reliable in complex matrices like herbs usually necessitates difficult processes and powerful detection instrument in preparation of sample. This study investigated the global occurrence of aflatoxin contamination herbal products. This article pivots on key breakthroughs in preparation of sample and its importance in analytical technology. Studies from published studies were screened to determine the general level of aflatoxin contamination. The countries involved were Malaysia, Indonesia, Kenya, Brazil, Nigeria, Thailand, South Africa, and Morocco. This review also includes recent studies on the development and application of screening assays such as lateral flow immunoassays, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, aptamer-based lateral flow assays, and cytometric bead arrays, as well as traditional chromatographic techniques for aflatoxin qualification or quantitation. The current study looks at aflatoxin contamination of key herbal drug raw material, which are frequently used in the production of numerous herbal pharmaceuticals. Contamination of aflatoxin might occur in herbal products if the ingredients such as medicinal herbs and plants that are used in manufacturing of herbal products are not dried thoroughly or stored inappropriately after preparation.

Assessment of total aflatoxin (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2) in fish feed and feedstuffs by using high performance thin layer chromatography

Aflatoxin contamination happens if the storage condition of feed is poor or low-quality ingredients were used for the preparation of feed. The present study aimed at evaluating the level of total aflatoxin contamination in the commercial fish feed and feedstuffs collected from Tamil Nadu, India. Total 70 samples comprising 20 fish feed, 10 corn, 10 sunflower meal, 10 soybeans, 10 wheat bran, 10 groundnut oil cake were analyzed for the presence of total aflatoxin. Romer's all-purpose method was used for extraction and aflatoxin levels were detected by HPTLC. The outcome of this study revealed that the fish feed and feedstuffs contaminated with aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 were ranged between 10 - 80, 10 - 35, 10 - 20, 10-25 µg kg-1 and the percentage of contamination was 88%, 84%, 70%, 54.4%, respectively. Out of 70 samples, 45 samples were contaminated with aflatoxin B1 and the detected levels were above the permissible limit recommended by EU and FDA. The study warrants the need for periodical monitoring of fish feed and feedstuffs to aflatoxin analysis, thereby advocate the need to establish a proper regulatory measure for aflatoxin level in aquaculture feed and feedstuffs to ensure food safety.

Natural Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Maize in North China.

Mycotoxins seriously threaten the quality of maize seriously around the world. A total of 426 samples of maize kernel from northeast and northwest China were analyzed in this study. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS) was performed to analyze the mycotoxin contamination of maize samples. The results showed that it was contaminated by mycotoxins in maize. The average contamination levels of fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, aflatoxins, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, T-2 and HT-2 were 937, 431, 22, 27, 2 and 12 μg/kg, respectively. Concentration of mycotoxins in some samples exceeded their limit, but most were still at safe levels. The contamination level of FBs and DON were most significative. The proportion of mycotoxins exceeding the maximum limit standard was in the following order: 8.0%, 8.0%, 7.0%, 1.6%, 1.4% and 0.0%. The contamination of mycotoxins in maize varies from region to region.

Mycological and Mycotoxicological Analysis of Maize Imported into Senegal.

Most of the maize used in Senegal comes from abroad. However, no contamination data is available to date for maize imported into Senegal. The objective of this study is to determine the food safety level of maize from France, Argentina and the United States. The analysis of aflatoxins in corn samples is carried out on a High-Performance Liquid Chromatograph. PDA culture medium is used for the isolation, purification and identification of potentially mycotoxinogenic molds contaminating imported corn. The results of the analyzes show the presence of aflatoxins in all the samples. In 35% of the samples, the levels of aflatoxin contamination exceed the standards set by the European regulations in force. They also reveal the presence of mycotoxinogenic molds in this corn. These are two aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus (A. flavus and A parasiticus) and Penicillium sp. As a result, and faced with this threatening situation for public health, Senegal must take a major interest in ensuring that imported products comply with international health standards.

Aflatoxin Total and Microbial Contamination of Grains, Oil Seeds, Yam Chips and Fish Sold in Maiduguri Market

Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites of fungus Aspergillus flavus and closely related species that infects severalagricultural commodities. The consumption of contaminated commodities adversely affects the health of humansand animals and also a cause of significant economic losses to producers. This study surveyed the aflatoxincontamination level of cowpea, maize, melon, groundnut, yam chips and fish sold in Maiduguri metropolis.Samples from each product (250 g) were bulked and thoroughly mixed using coning and quartering method to geta representative sample for analysis. Laboratory observations were carried out regarding microbial analysis,proximate composition and aflatoxin content. Samples for aflatoxin detection were classified into three; unsortedsamples, sorted samples and sorted/washed dried samples. Fish had the highest bacterial load 2.48 x 106 cfu/ml andAspergillus species were found to be the predominant fungi identified. Maize and groundnut with moisture contentof 5.63 and 5.62 had the highest total aflatoxin contamination (320.51 μg/kg and 236.3 μg/kg respectively) both inthe unsorted group. Total aflatoxin reduction of (58.82 - 99.99%) was observed in all the sorted samples andsorted/washed dried samples. It can be concluded that commonly sold food in Maiduguri had fungal and Aflatoxincontamination. Food should undergo several rounds of sorting to remove discoloured grains and grains that showsevidence(s) of deterioration to reduce the ingestion of food contaminated with aflatoxin.