Letter-word Knowledge Research Articles

Reading abilities in preterm children: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

It is well recognized that children born preterm have specific learning difficulties. The objective of this study is to carry out a systematic review and meta-analysis on preterm children's reading ability performance. Of the 486 studies identified, 53 met the inclusion criteria, resulting in 143 effect sizes. 33,500 children between 5 and 18years were included of whom 13,765 were preterm infants and 19,735 were full-term infants. Among preterm-born children without neurodevelopmental disorders significant differences and larger effect sizes were found in the reading subcategories, letter-word knowledge, reading comprehension, and spelling, whereas no significant differences were found in phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming. Extremely preterm children showed larger effect size. The present meta-analysis, which includes a much larger number of studies, shows that preterm children have lower performance than full-term children in reading and spelling. This fact underlines the need to design, develop and implement neuroeducational programs that take into account the characteristics of preterm born students.

Bidirectional and co-developing associations of cognitive, mathematics, and literacy skills during kindergarten

This study of children from two U. S. states examined associations among four cognitive and academic skills: executive function (EF), visuo-motor integration, mathematics assessed with applied problems, and letter-word knowledge. Before (T1) and after (T2) kindergarten, children (N = 555) were assessed using the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders (HTKS) EF task, the Beery-Buktenica test of Visuo-motor Integration (Beery VMI), and Woodcock-Johnson subtests of Applied problems and Letter-word identification. Bidirectional analyses showed that all T1 skills predicted at least one other skill, with T1 HTKS and T1 Applied problems predicting all skills. In addition, improving from T1 to T2 in Applied problems was associated with improvements in all skills using random effects analyses, based on differences between children nested in kindergarten classrooms. This overall pattern of results was confirmed using fixed effects analyses, which examined only within-child variability. We conclude that multiple skills undergird early mathematics learning and vice versa.

Effects of language on initial reading: Direct and indirect associations between code and language from preschool to first grade

We examined the relationships among language and code-related abilities between preschool and grade one to test the hypothesis that code- and language-related abilities that the Simple View of Reading describes as distinct emerge from an early period when they are interrelated. We assessed multiple language abilities, phonological awareness, and letter-word knowledge in a sample of 489 predominantly African-American children from low-income homes. In preschool, kindergarten, and first grade we found significant positive correlations among measures of language, phonological awareness, and letter-word knowledge, and cross-age continuity in constructs. Using path and mediational analysis, we found effects of early language on later code-related skills and grade one reading. We also found effects of code-based skills on language. Vocabulary plays a central role in carrying early language effects and is the language ability most strongly associated with early reading. Discourse abilities have direct and indirect effects on emerging language abilities. Letter-word knowledge strongly predicts later letter-word knowledge and grade one reading and decoding. We found effects of early letter-word knowledge and phonological skills awareness in prekindergarten and kindergarten on first grade reading and decoding, accounting for intelligence, age, and gender. The direct and indirect effect combination of those early skills accounted for 32.1% of the variance in first grade reading and 29.3% of the variance in first grade decoding. Early language skills accounted for 9.5% of first grade reading and 7.8% of first grade decoding. Our results call into question the assumption of the Simple View of Reading that reading comprehension draws on two strands of competence that are initially distinct.

The effect of peers' self-regulation on preschooler's self-regulation and literacy growth

Peer effects, or the effect of peer skill levels on an individual's skills, are important predictors of school achievement, with recent research suggesting that they are also predictive of preschool skills. This study investigates the effect of peer levels of self-regulation on two aspects of school readiness: self-regulation and early literacy; and whether peer effects differ based on individual child skills and sex. Peer effects were assessed for 629 preschool children in 56 classrooms. Utilizing multilevel models within a structural equation modeling framework, peer self-regulation predicted self-regulation and letter word decoding growth, but not letter word knowledge. This suggests that peers can play a role in children's individual learning. Additionally, girls demonstrated higher spring self-regulation than boys. Peer effects were more predictive of spring self-regulation for children with low, rather than high, levels of fall self-regulation. These findings highlight the importance of preschool social/interactional environments.

Multiple aspects of self-regulation uniquely predict mathematics but not letter-word knowledge in the early elementary grades.

The relation of self-regulation measured prior to school entry to developing math and reading ability in prekindergarten through the second grade was examined in a prospective longitudinal sample of 1,292 children and families in predominantly rural and low-income communities in 2 regions of high poverty in the United States. Direct assessments of executive function, effortful control, and stress response physiology (indexed by resting levels of cortisol and alpha amylase obtained from saliva) were measured at child age 48 months and parents and teachers reported on children's effortful control using temperament rating scales at child age approximately 60 months. Math and reading ability, as measured by the Woodcock-Johnson III applied problems and letter-word subtests, respectively, were measured at prekindergarten through the second grade. Effects for self-regulation measures were seen primarily for initial level and to some extent growth in both mathematics and reading, even when controlling for family demographic characteristics that represent relevant selection factors into higher levels of both self-regulation and academic achievement. These effects persisted for mathematics but not for reading with the inclusion of child cognitive abilities, vocabulary, and speed of processing measured in prekindergarten, concurrent with the first time point for the academic measures. Results are interpreted as indicating a role for self-regulation in learning ability generally, likely through support for attention and reasoning abilities that are most specific to the assessment of mathematics in this analysis. Implications for instruction and for assessment and the best ways to support the development of early math and reading ability for children at risk for school failure are discussed.

Multiple aspects of self-regulation uniquely predict mathematics but not letter–word knowledge in the early elementary grades.

Multiple aspects of self-regulation uniquely predict mathematics but not letter–word knowledge in the early elementary grades.

Associations among preschool children’s classroom literacy environment, interest and engagement in literacy activities, and early reading skills

This study examines the relations among the classroom literacy environment, children’s interest and engagement in literacy activities, and children’s early reading skills in a sample of 167 children aged 4 and 5 years enrolled in 31 Head Start classrooms. Researchers rated the classroom literacy environment. Teachers reported on children’s interest in literacy activities and observers reported on children’s engagement in literacy activities during large group and free play. Researchers directly assessed children’s early reading skills: phonological awareness, letter-word knowledge, and expressive vocabulary. Classroom literacy environment was indirectly associated with some early reading skills via child literacy interest and engagement. Different associations were found for literacy engagement during large group compared to literacy engagement during free play. The implications of the findings are discussed, as are directions for future research.

Parents’ reading-related knowledge and children’s reading acquisition

Teacher reading-related knowledge (phonological awareness and phonics knowledge) predicts student reading, however little is known about the reading-related knowledge of parents. Participants comprised 70 dyads (children from kindergarten and grade 1 and their parents). Parents were administered a questionnaire tapping into reading-related knowledge, print exposure, storybook reading, and general cultural knowledge. Children were tested on measures of letter-word knowledge, sound awareness, receptive vocabulary, oral expression, and mathematical skill. Parent reading-related knowledge showed significant positive links with child letter-word knowledge and sound awareness, but showed no correlations with child measures of mathematical skill or vocabulary. Furthermore, parent reading-related knowledge was not associated with parents' own print exposure or cultural knowledge, indicating that knowledge about English word structure may be separate from other cognitive skills. Implications are discussed in terms of improving parent reading-related knowledge to promote child literacy.

Home literacy environments, interest in reading and emergent literacy skills of children with Down syndrome versus typical children

The present study examined home literacy environments, children's interest in reading and emergent literacy skills of pre-school-aged children with Down syndrome (DS; n=20), school-aged children with DS (n=17) and typically developing children (n=18) matched on chronological age with the younger DS group and mental age (MA) with the older DS group. Parents filled out questionnaires on their home literacy environments and their children's interest in reading. School-aged children with DS and typical children were assessed on cognitive functioning, receptive vocabulary, alphabet knowledge, familiarity with print conventions and comprehension of meaning. School-aged children with DS and typical children - as opposed to pre-school-aged children with DS - were exposed to more literacy-rich home environments and had greater interest in reading. School-aged children with DS also outperformed the MA-matched typical group on letter and sight word knowledge and familiarity with print conventions. Parents of children with DS tailor home literacy environments to their children's developmental levels. Confirming earlier studies, children with DS achieved some higher literacy skills than what was expected for their MA, emphasising the importance of early reading interventions for this population.

Low-Income Children's School Readiness: Parent Contributions Over the First Five Years

Early development is likely influenced by quality of early parenting and improvements or declines in quality over time. Little is known about how changes in different dimensions of parenting influence child outcomes, nor the relative sizes of associations when considering several aspects simultaneously. These questions are addressed in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project (N = 1273). Assessments occurred when children were 1, 2, 3, and 5 years old. Parent supportiveness (videotaped play interactions), home learning environment (observed), and depressive symptoms and parenting stress (self-report) were assessed. Children's school readiness at age 5 was assessed via receptive vocabulary, letter–word knowledge, observed emotion regulation, approaches toward learning, and behavior problems. In this low-income sample, early parenting as well as change over time predicted school readiness. Associations mostly followed predictions from the family stress model and cognitive stimulation models; learning environment and maternal supportiveness were most strongly associated with child vocabulary and letter–word knowledge, although supportiveness was also linked with observed emotion regulation, and learning environment early on was also linked with emotion regulation, and early learning environment was also linked with emotion regulation, and early learning environment was also linked with behavior problems and approaches toward learning. Depressive symptoms and parenting stress were more strongly associated with behavior problems, although early parenting stress was also associated with approaches toward learning and emotion regulation.

Dimensions of Literacy Coaching With Head Start Teachers

Plans to improve literacy instruction ( N = 1,504) developed by teachers and early literacy experts in coaching sessions ( N = 280) conducted in 31 Head Start classrooms were examined to describe a general trajectory of coaching with regard to content coverage, pedagogical emphasis (instructional material, teaching behavior), and progression (new, repeated, expanded plan). A secondary aim was to determine whether pedagogical emphasis and progression in improvement plans differed across four major literacy content areas (reading, writing, letter-word knowledge, phonological awareness). Overall, improvement plans (a) most frequently addressed children’s letter-word knowledge and least frequently addressed phonological awareness, (b) pertained to teaching behaviors to a greater extent than instructional materials, and (c) mostly focused on large group instruction. A majority of plans were new versus expansions or repeats of improvement plans developed in prior coaching sessions. There were significant differences in pedagogical emphasis and progression across four literacy content areas. Effect sizes were small to medium.

Testing the concurrent and predictive relations among articulation accuracy, speech perception, and phoneme awareness

The relations among articulation accuracy, speech perception, and phoneme awareness were examined in a sample of 97 typically developing children ages 48 to 66 months. Of these 97 children, 46 were assessed twice at ages 4 and 5 years. Children completed two tasks for each of the three skills, assessing these abilities for the target phoneme /r/ and the control phoneme /m/ in the word-initial position. Concurrent analyses revealed that phoneme-specific relations existed among articulation, awareness, and perception. Articulation accuracy of /r/ predicted speech perception and phoneme awareness for /r/ after controlling for age, vocabulary, letter–word knowledge, and speech perception or phoneme awareness for the control phoneme /m/. The longitudinal analyses confirmed the pattern of relations. The findings are consistent with a model whereby children’s articulation accuracy affects preexisting differences in phonological representations and, consequently, affects how children perceive, discriminate, and manipulate speech sounds.