Eulemur Coronatus Research Articles

Diverse Circular DNA Viral Communities in Blood, Oral, and Fecal Samples of Captive Lemurs.

Few studies have addressed viral diversity in lemurs despite their unique evolutionary history on the island of Madagascar and high risk of extinction. Further, while a large number of studies on animal viromes focus on fecal samples, understanding viral diversity across multiple sample types and seasons can reveal complex viral community structures within and across species. Groups of captive lemurs at the Duke Lemur Center (Durham, NC, USA), a conservation and research center, provide an opportunity to build foundational knowledge on lemur-associated viromes. We sampled individuals from seven lemur species, i.e., collared lemur (Eulemur collaris), crowned lemur (Eulemur coronatus), blue-eyed black lemur (Eulemur flavifrons), ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta), Coquerel's sifaka (Propithecus coquereli), black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata variegata), and red ruffed lemur (Varecia rubra), across two lemur families (Lemuridae, Indriidae). Fecal, blood, and saliva samples were collected from Coquerel's sifaka and black-and-white ruffed lemur individuals across two sampling seasons to diversify virome biogeography and temporal sampling. Using viral metagenomic workflows, the complete genomes of anelloviruses (n = 4), cressdnaviruses (n = 47), caudoviruses (n = 15), inoviruses (n = 34), and microviruses (n = 537) were determined from lemur blood, feces, and saliva. Many virus genomes, especially bacteriophages, identified in this study were present across multiple lemur species. Overall, the work presented here uses a viral metagenomics approach to investigate viral communities inhabiting the blood, oral cavity, and feces of healthy captive lemurs.

Infant survival is significantly impacted by dam- and management-related factors in zoo-managed Eulemur populations.

Due to their potential impact on population growth, many studies have investigated factors affecting infant survival in mammal populations under human care. Here we used more than 30 years of Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) studbook data and contraception data from the AZA Reproductive Management Center, along with logistic regression models, to investigate which factors affect infant survival in four Eulemur species managed as Species Survival Plans® in AZA. Across species, infant survival to 1 month ranged from 65% to 78%. Previous experience producing surviving offspring was positively correlated to infant survival in collared (Eulemur collaris), crowned (Eulemur coronatus), and mongoose (Eulemur mongoz) lemurs. Both dam age and previous use of contraception were negatively correlated to infant survival for collared lemurs, though our results suggest the latter may be confounded with other factors. Blue-eyed black lemurs (Eulemur flavifrons) were affected by birth location, suggesting differences in husbandry that may affect infant survival. These results can be used to assist in reproductive planning or to anticipate the likelihood of breeding success. Population managers may also be able to focus their reproductive planning on younger dams or those with previous experience to predict successful births. Future studies should seek to determine what aspects of previous dam success are most important to infant survival, investigate sire-related factors, and examine factors related to cause of death in infants that may lead to differential survival. Our hope is to present a framework that may be useful for investigating infant survival in other mammal species' breeding programs.

Topography of cranial foramina and anaesthesia techniques of cranial nerves in selected species of primates (Cebidae, Cercopithecidae, Lemuridae) – part I – osteology

BackgroundConductive anaesthesia of the nerves around the head is one of the methods of intraoperative pain relief (under deep anaesthesia but before proceeding with the procedure). Performing this procedure on primates is especially challenging for the veterinarian, due to their cranial anatomy and topography, which has more in common with the human skull than with the skulls of other animals. Knowledge of key bony structures, including cranial foramina, is essential for effective anaesthesia of the cranial nerves.ResultsIn this study, the differences in the topography of the cranial foramina in eight selected species of primates were examined: Angola colobus (Colobus angolensis), Celebes crested macaque (Macaca nigra), L’Hoest’s monkey (Allochrocebus lhoesti), baboon (Papio cynocephalus), buff-bellied capuchin (Sapajus xanthosternos), black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata), crowned lemur (Eulemur coronatus), and a ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) coming from the Wroclaw Zoological Garden (Poland). The cranial nerves running through the foramina have also been described and their anaesthesia techniques against bone points have been tested to relieve post-operative pain in the area of the head supplied by these nerves.ConclusionThe tests carried out show differences in the topography of the cranial foramina, and therefore also differences in the methods of injection, so the results obtained in this study may be useful in veterinary medicine, especially for practising veterinarians.

Ground‐based vegetation descriptions and remote sensing as complementary methods describing habitat requirements of a frugivorous primate in northern Madagascar: implications for forest restoration

AbstractNon‐human primate species are threatened worldwide. Their population declines go along with the loss of ecological functions such as seed dispersal that plays a crucial role in plant regeneration. Restoring essential habitat structures could thus not only protect primates, but also facilitate forest regeneration. We used classical vegetation description on the ground and a remote sensing analysis to describe habitat use of crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus), a seed‐dispersing primate endemic to northern Madagascar. Our aim was to find vegetation characteristics important for lemurs that might be targeted in a restoration approach. For this, we applied both methods in differently degraded forest types. Both classical vegetation description and remote sensing analysis were able to distinguish these forest types. The habitat use of our two study groups was associated consistently with vegetation structures measured on a small scale such as tree height and density of thick trees. In contrast, vegetation productivity and water content derived from satellite imagery on a larger scale could not consistently explain habitat use of lemurs. Thus, measurements on the ground can identify suitable microhabitats that do not show on the satellite imagery scale. These microhabitats might be very important conservation elements to create buffer zones and corridors. Further, they might attract seed‐dispersing species into degraded areas targeted for forest restoration, acting as natural regeneration nuclei. The potential of these microhabitats for conservation would not be recognized when analyses were based solely on landscape analyses on large scales.

Do zoo-housed primates retreat from crowds? A simple study of five primate species.

An animal's welfare state is directly influenced by the mental state, which is shaped by experiences within the environment throughout the animal's life. For zoo-housed animals, visitors to the zoo are a large part of that environment and a fluctuating influence within it. This study examines the impact of zoo visitors on the space use of five species of zoo-housed primates (Eastern black-and-white colobus monkeys, Colobus guereza, n = 5, Allen's swamp monkeys, Allenopithecus nigroviridis, n = 2, DeBrazza's monkeys, Cercopithecus neglectus, n = 3, Bolivian gray titi monkeys, Callicebus donacophilus, n = 3, and crowned lemurs, Eulemur coronatus, n = 3). Specifically, we considered whether primates' distance from visitor areas changed as crowd sizes increased. Data were collected using the ZooMonitor app. Observers recorded spatial coordinates for each animal over periods ranging from 12 to 32 months. Data were analyzed using two types of regression models (linear and logistic) to examine the influence of visitors on the location of the primates. Both analyses revealed a statistically significant but small decrease in primate distance from visitor viewing glass as the number of visitors increased. Behavioral indicators of welfare were also unaffected by the presence of visitors. These results suggest that, with additional validation, distance from visitors may be one promising, simple way to evaluate the influence of visitors on primate welfare.

The role of lemur seed dispersal in restoring degraded forest ecosystems in Madagascar

Abstract Anthropogenic disturbances lead to the degradation or destruction of tropical forests, with negative consequences for flora, fauna, and local people. Restoration plantings may compensate these impacts, but time and financial expenditures are high. Thus, priority is often given to plantations of a few introduced species that have little value for conservation. Animal seed dispersal may diversify and accelerate regeneration of restoration plantings, thereby lowering their costs. We studied seed dispersal quantity and quality of crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus) in a highly degraded forest in northern Madagascar, conducting behavioural observations and germination experiments and describing dispersed plant species’ characteristics. Crowned lemurs were highly frugivorous, dispersing a large number of seeds and plant species. While there were negative effects of gut passage on germination, the positive effects of pulp removal outweighed these, resulting in an overall positive effect on regeneration. Our study confirmed that effects of gut passage are dependent on the dispersed plant species. We found 20 plant species, including three threatened with extinction, whose only dispersers in Oronjia seem to be crowned lemurs. We conclude that lemurs play important roles in protecting plant species and maintaining healthy ecosystems through seed dispersal, and that E. coronatus is a key species in this respect. In addition, if lemurs were included in restoration, they would disperse a diversity of plant species that cannot be matched by conventional restoration plantings. Their influence would facilitate the regeneration of some, but not all plant species. Negative effects, like the spread of invasive species through seed dispersal by lemurs, must also be considered.

Enriched sleep environments lengthen lemur sleep duration.

Characteristics of the sleep-site are thought to influence the quality and duration of primate sleep, yet only a handful of studies have investigated these links experimentally. Using actigraphy and infrared videography, we quantified sleep in four lemur species (Eulemur coronatus, Lemur catta, Propithecus coquereli, and Varecia rubra) under two different experimental conditions at the Duke Lemur Center (DLC) in Durham, NC, USA. Individuals from each species underwent three weeks of simultaneous testing to investigate the hypothesis that comfort level of the sleep-site influences sleep. We obtained baseline data on normal sleep, and then, in a pair-wise study design, we compared the daily sleep times, inter-daily activity stability, and intra-daily activity variability of individuals in simultaneous experiments of sleep-site enrichment and sleep-site impoverishment. Over 164 24-hour periods from 8 individuals (2 of each species), we found evidence that enriched sleep-sites increased daily sleep times of lemurs, with an average increase of thirty-two minutes. The effect of sleep-site impoverishment was small and not statistically significant. Though our experimental manipulations altered inter-daily stability and intra-daily variability in activity patterns relative to baseline, the changes did not differ significantly between enriched and impoverished conditions. We conclude that properties of a sleep-site enhancing softness or insulation, more than the factors of surface area or stability, influence lemur sleep, with implications regarding the importance of nest building in primate evolution and the welfare and management of captive lemurs.

Sexual Dimorphism in Crowned Lemur Scent-Marking.

Simple SummaryPrimates are typically thought to use hearing and vision more than the sense of smell. However, lemurs show a complex olfactory repertoire which includes conspicuous scent-marking behaviours (i.e., a form of olfactory communication displayed by animals that deposit their odour in specific places to transmit a message to other animals). We studied two pairs of crowned lemurs at Colchester and Twycross zoos (UK) by combining behavioural observations and chemical analyses of odour secretions released via scent-marking. Male lemurs scent-marked most frequently, showing three types of behaviours: ano-genital marking for applying their scent onto females; head marking for placing their secretions on or near the mark left by another individual; and wrist marking to deposit their mark in specific meaningful areas of the enclosure. Female lemurs displayed only ano-genital marking, primarily on feeding devices. We detected a total of 38 volatile compounds in male ano-genital scent-marks and 26 in female ano-genital odour secretions, including many compounds that have been identified in odour profiles of other primates. In conclusion, we found sexual dimorphism in crowned lemur scent-marking. In males, head and wrist marking behaviours would play defensive territorial functions, while ano-genital marking may be related to socio-sexual communication; female ano-genital marking could be involved in resource defense. This study contributes to improving our understanding of lemur communication.Primates are traditionally considered to have a poor sense of smell. However, olfaction is important for non-human primates as demonstrated by conspicuous scent-marking behaviours in lemurs. We studied two pairs (n = 4) of crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus) housed at Colchester and Twycross zoos (UK) by combining behavioural observations and chemical analyses of scent-marks and glandular swabs. We recorded observations of olfactory behaviours for 201 h using instantaneous scan sampling. We investigated the volatile compounds of ano-genital odour secretions (n = 16) using solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Males scent-marked most frequently, displaying ano-genital marking for allomarking, head marking for countermarking and wrist marking in specific areas of the enclosure. Females displayed ano-genital marking, predominantly on feeding devices. We detected a total of 38 volatile components in all male ano-genital scent-marks and 26 in all female samples of ano-genital odour secretions, including a series of esters, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, terpenes, volatile fatty acids and hydrocarbons that have been identified in odour profiles of other primates. In conclusion, we found sexual dimorphism in crowned lemur scent-marking. Male head and wrist marking behaviours might play defensive territorial functions, while ano-genital marking would be related to socio-sexual communication as chemical mate-guarding. Female ano-genital marking might be involved in resource defense.

Headfirst descent behaviors in a comparative sample of strepsirrhine primates.

The ability to safely ascend and descend is critical to the success of arboreal animals. Nonprimate mammals typically descend supports headfirst aided by their claws, but primates must rely on grasping, and use a variety of behaviors to move down within an arboreal environment, including headfirst and tailfirst descending. This study assesses hypothesized body mass limits on vertical headfirst descent and identifies approximate support orientations and diameters at which headfirst descent is ceased in a sample of nine strepsirrhines species ranging in mass from 0.06 to 4.5 kg. Species under 1 kg, arboreal quadrupeds Cheirogaleus medius and Microcebus murinus, and slow climber Nycticebus pygmaeus, always descended supports headfirst regardless of orientation and diameter as long as a grasp could be established. Arboreal quadrupedal species above 1 kg, Daubetonia madagascariensis, Eulemur coronatus, Eulemur mongoz, Lemur catta, and Varecia variegata differed in the orientation at which they ceased using headfirst descent and the types of alternative descending behaviors they employed. Lemur catta, a highly terrestrial species, started to employ tailfirst descents at 45° and completely stopped using headfirst descent on steeper and thicker supports. Other arboreal quadrupeds, D. madagascariensis, E. coronatus, E. mongoz, and V. variegata, began using tailfirst descent at 60°. The vertical clinging and leaping species Propithecus coquereli rarely engaged in above branch quadrupedalism, and individuals were observed using tailfirst descents on supports as shallow as 15°. This study shows the ways in which mass and anatomy may constrain use of headfirst descent through arboreal environments, and the alternate strategies strepsirrhine primates employ to descend.

Realized distribution patterns of crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus) within a human-dominated forest fragment in northern Madagascar.

Due to the impact of anthropogenic activities on forest extent and integrity across Madagascar, it is increasingly necessary to assess how endangered lemur populations inhabiting human-dominated forest fragments can effectively sustain themselves ecologically. Our research addresses this concern by exploring how the distribution patterns of a small population of crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus), occupying a degraded forest fragment at Oronjia Forest New Protected Area in northern Madagascar, are impacted by the availability of key ecological and anthropogenic factors. We hypothesize that the distribution of E. coronatus within the fragment is limited by the availability of critical ecological resources and conditions and the intensity of anthropogenic features and activities. To examine this, we used MaxEnt to develop a species distribution model using presence-only occurrence records and 10 independent background covariates detailing the site's ecological and anthropogenic aspects. The results indicate that the realized distribution patterns of E. coronatus within human-dominated forest fragments are strongly associated with sections of forest that contain sparsely and sporadically distributed resources, such as freshwater and continuous hardwood vegetation. We conclude that the distribution of E. coronatus at Oronjia is shaped by their need to maximize foraging opportunities in a degraded forest landscape where they are subject to both environmental and anthropogenic stressors.

Eulerian videography technology improves classification of sleep architecture in primates.

Sleep is a critically important dimension of primate behavior, ecology, and evolution, yet primate sleep is under-studied because current methods of analyzing sleep are expensive, invasive, and time-consuming. In contrast to electroencephalography (EEG) and actigraphy, videography is a cost-effective and non-invasive method to study sleep architecture in animals. With video data, however, it is challenging to score subtle changes that occur in different sleep states, and technology has lagged behind innovations in EEG and actigraphy. Here, we applied Eulerian videography to magnify pixels relevant to scoring sleep from video, and then compared these results to analyses based on actigraphy and standard infrared videography. We studied four species of lemurs (Eulemur coronatus, Lemur catta, Propithecus coquereli, Varecia rubra) for 12-h periods per night, resulting in 6480 1-min epochs for analysis. Cramer'sV correlation between actigraphy-classified sleep and infrared videography-classified sleep revealed consistent results in eight of the nine 12-h videos scored. A sample of the infrared videography was then processed by Eulerian videography for movement magnification and re-coded. A second Cramer'sV correlation analysis, between two independent scorers coding the same Eulerian-processed video, found that interobserver agreement among Eulerian videography increased sleep vs. awake, NREM, and REM classifications by 7.1%, 46.7%, and 34.3%, respectively. Furthermore, Eulerian videography was more strongly correlated with actigraphy data when compared to results from standard infrared videography. The increase in agreement between the two scorers indicates that Eulerian videography has the potential to improve the identification of sleep states in lemurs and other primates, and thus to expand our understanding of sleep architecture without the need for EEG.

Museum collections are the key to studying lemurs’ diet: gastrointestinal morphology of Cheirogaleus major

This study reports the first description of the gastrointestinal (GIT) morphology of a lemur species (Cheirogaleus major É. Geoffroy, 1812) of the family Cheirogaleidae using a museum collection deposited at the Natural History Museum, London. Knowledge on GIT morphology is the key to assessment of the diet of animals, especially those that are highly threatened. Several studies predicted the demise of lemurs (>100 species representing 20% of the world's primate diversity) by 2080 unless the conservation community acts quickly. In this context, museum collections could provide valuable evidence on the biology of lemurs to underpin conservation protocols. The feeding ecology of the omnivorous Cheirogaleus major is poorly known due to its secretive periods of hibernation and daily torpor, nocturnal activity and solitary foraging habit. To better understand the biology of C. major, we described and compared its GIT morphology with those of six other species for which we have published data, especially the frugivore taxa (Eulemur coronatus Grey, 1842 and Varecia variegata Kerr, 1792). Our findings showed that C. major has a GIT morphology similar to those of E. coronatus and V. variegata. This is especially the case because of its caecum, which is short and only slightly sacculated suggesting that it is not suitable for microbial breakdown of plant cell wall (unlike those of Propithecus species, Lemur catta, and Hapalemur griseus). This result is in line with ecological studies suggesting that C. major obtains its protein and carbohydrate intake from fruits and to some extent arthropods and not from the digestion of leaves as previously hypothesized. In light of this new evidence, conservation programmes should account for both the lemur and its associated flora. Overall, this study demonstrates the unique potential of museum collections to study the nutritional ecology of threatened animals and their potential role in supporting conservation.

Functional Morphology of Mimetic Musculature in Primates: How Social Variables and Body Size Stack up to Phylogeny.

Mammalian skeletal muscle is influenced by the functional demands placed upon it. Functional morphology of facial expression musculature, or mimetic musculature, is largely unknown. Recently, primate mimetic musculature has been shown to respond to demands associated with social factors. Body size has also been demonstrated to affect many aspects of primate functional morphology and evolutionary morphology. The present study was designed to further examine the role of social variables and body size in influencing the morphology of primate mimetic musculature using a broad phylogenetic range of primates, primates with varying body sizes, and those that exploit differing time of day activity cycles and social group sizes. Gross data on mimetic musculature morphology were gathered from tarsiers (Tarsius bancanus), slender lorises (Loris tardigradus), ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus), black lemurs (E. macaco), owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus), and howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) and compared to previous results from chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), gibbons and siamangs (hylobatids), rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), Sulawesi macaques (M. nigra), common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus), and greater bushbabies (Otolemur spp.). Mimetic muscle presence/absence was observed and recorded. Results revealed that phylogenetic position determines the overall mimetic muscle groundplan, with anthropoids having a high number of muscles in the superciliary and midface regions, strepsirrhines having a high number of muscles in the external ear region, and tarsiers displaying an intermediate condition. Within these broad taxonomic categories body size had an effect on mimetic musculature, while time of day activity and social group size had smaller effects. Anat Rec, 301:202-215, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Activity patterns in seven captive lemur species: Evidence of cathemerality in Varecia and Lemur catta?

Cathemerality, or activity throughout the 24-hr cycle, is rare in primates yet relatively common among lemurs. However, the diverse ecological conditions under which cathemerality is expressed complicates attempts to identify species-typical behavior. For example, Lemur catta and Varecia have historically been described as diurnal, yet recent studies suggest that they might exhibit cathemeral behavior under some conditions. To investigate this variation, we monitored activity patterns among lemurs that are exposed to similar captive environments. Using MotionWatch 8 ® actigraphy data loggers, we studied 88 lemurs across seven species at the Duke Lemur Center (DLC). Six species were members of the family Lemuridae (Eulemur coronatus, E. flavifrons, E. mongoz, L. catta, V. rubra, V. variegata), while a seventh was strictly diurnal and included as an out-group (Propithecus coquereli). For each 24-hr cycle (N = 503), we generated two estimates of cathemerality: mean night (MN) activity and day/night (DN) activity ratio (day and night cutoffs were based on astronomical twilights). As expected, P. coquereli engaged in the least amount of nocturnal activity according to both measures; their activity was also outside the 95% confidence intervals of all three cathemeral Eulemur species, which exhibited the greatest evidence of cathemerality. By these estimates, Varecia activity was most similar to Eulemur and exhibited substantial deviations from P. coquereli (β (MN) = 0.22 ± SE 0.12; β (DN) = -0.21 ± SE 0.12). L. catta activity patterns also deviated from P. coquereli (β (MN) = 0.12 ± SE 0.11; β (DN) = -0.15 ± SE 0.12) but to a lesser degree than either Varecia or Eulemur. Overall, L. catta displayed an intermediate activity pattern between Eulemur and P. coquereli, which is somewhat consistent with wild studies. Regarding Varecia, although additional observations in more diverse wild habitats are needed, our findings support the existence of cathemeral behavior in this genus.

The influence of visitor interaction on the behavior of captive crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus) and implications for welfare

Research suggests that zoo visitors can have positive, negative, and neutral impacts on captive primate welfare; however, research investigating the implications of visitor-animal feeding experiences is extremely limited. In the UK, a large proportion of BIAZA zoos that house lemur species offer visitor interaction experiences (16 out of 33). This study investigated the impact on the behavior of a family group of crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus) housed at Newquay Zoo, UK of visitors, accompanied by a keeper, entering the enclosure to feed the lemurs. Behavior was observed under four conditions: (i) during visitor feed; (ii) 30 min post-visitor feed; (iii) during a keeper feed; and (iv) 30 min post-keeper feed. Keeper feeds were conducted by keepers only, on the day after visitor feeds. The lemur group spent significantly less time performing aggressive behavior and was also significantly more interactive with keepers during visitor feeds compared with keeper-only feeds. There was no significant difference in behaviors performed immediately after interacting with visitors. Over the study period, there was a tendency for interactions with visitors to increase, and for interactions with keepers during visitor feeds to decrease. After a 28-day interval without visitor interaction, the lemurs' interaction with visitors had returned to the level recorded at the start of the study. In conclusion, visitor interaction did not compromise the welfare of the study subjects in either the short- or long-term, while an increase in visitor interactions over time has interesting implications for the enrichment properties of, or habituation to, unfamiliar humans. Zoo Biol. 35:222-227, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Diet and Seed Dispersal by Eulemur coronatus (Gray, Primates and Lemuridae) in the Amber Mountain National Park, Madagascar

Eulemur coronatus (Gray, Primates and Lemuridae) belongs to the endemic animal species in Amber Mountain National Park, Madagascar. As a frugivorous lemur, it may have an important role in the forest regeneration. However, until now, no study has carried out the role of this lemur in forest regeneration. The diet and seed dispersal by E. coronatus were studied to determine the potential ecological role of this lemur in regeneration of Amber forest. A group of E. coronatus was observed and monitored during 396 hours. Field observation recorded the food items taken, plant species consumed and plants organs preferred. Seeds from discarded food items left by the group of E. coronatus being followed were collected to perform the germination tests. This allowed analysis of the germination potential of the collected seeds. The results showed that feeding times for E. coronatus varied significantly (p=0.01) across the study period. E. coronatus spent more time eating fruits than other organs of plants comprising 92%. E. coronatus consumed 46 plant species, with plants in the family Moraceae comprising 33% of those eaten. Overall, passed seeds had significantly higher germination rates than those control seeds (t =5.53, p=0.01). The average latency period of passed and control seeds ranged from 40 to 87 days and from 47.5 to 91 days, respectively. This study revealed the contribution of E. coronatus on the Amber forest regeneration and the crucial role that it can play in Madagascar forest to preserve the endemic plants species.

A 12-Month Survey of Gastrointestinal Helminth Infections of Lemurs Kept in Two Zoos in Madagascar

Infections with gastrointestinal parasites may be a major threat to lemurs kept in captivity, as they are a common cause of diarrhea. In this study, fecal egg count patterns and clinical signs associated with gastrointestinal nematodes were assessed for 12 mo in 40 lemurs kept under different husbandry and climatic conditions at two sites in Madagascar. Involved species were black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata), eastern grey bamboo lemurs (Hapalemur griseus), greater bamboo lemurs (Prolemur simus), red-bellied lemurs (Eulemur rubriventer), common brown lemurs (Eulemurfulvus), crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus), and Sclater's black lemurs (Eulemur macaco flavifrons). At site 1 (Tsimbazaza Zoological Park), lemurs were kept in small enclosures with daily cleaning of the cement soiling and without routine anthelmintic program, whereas at site 2 (Ivoloina Zoological Park), lemurs received routine anthelmintic prophylaxis and were housed in small enclosure with daily cleaning of sandy soil enclosures. A total of five genera of nematode eggs from the orders Strongylida, Oxyurida, and Enoplida were recovered and identified from 198 out of 240 samples (83%) at site 1 and 79% (189 out of 240) at site 2 with the use of a modified McMaster technique. Significant differences were found for parasites from the order Strongylida between the two sites. The differences may be due to climate conditions and the presumed life cycle of these parasites. No significant differences were found for parasites from the other orders. No significant differences were noted between sexes or between seasons. No clinical signs of parasitic gastroenteritis were seen in either lemur collection.

Evolutionary roots of motor planning: The end-state comfort effect in lemurs.

Humans (Homo sapiens) anticipate the consequences of their forthcoming actions. For example, they grasp objects with uncomfortable grasps to afford comfortable end positions-the end-state comfort (ESC) effect. When did such sophisticated motor planning abilities emerge in evolution? We addressed this question by asking whether humans' most distant living primate relatives-lemurs-also exhibit the ESC effect. We presented 6 species of lemurs (Lemur catta, Eulemur mongoz, Eulemur coronatus, Eulemur collaris, Hapalemur griseus, and Varecia rubra) with a food extraction task and measured the grasp used-either a canonical thumb-up posture or a noncanonical thumb-down posture. The lemurs adopted the thumb-down posture when that hand position afforded a thumb-up posture following object transport, thereby exhibiting the ESC effect. We conclude that the planning abilities underlying the ESC effect evolved at least 65 million years ago, or 25 million years earlier than previously supposed based on an earlier demonstration of the ESC effect in cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus; Weiss, Wark, & Rosenbaum, 2007). Because neither cotton-tops nor lemurs are tool users, the data suggest that the cognitive abilities implicated by the ESC effect are not sufficient, although they may be necessary, for tool use.

Gastrointestinal Morphology of the Crowned Lemur (Eulemur coronatus)

I provide measurements of the gastrointestinal tract of a captive female Eulemur coronatus, obtained at necropsy, and describe its morphology. The small intestine, caecum and colon were short when compared with those of other lemur species. The ratio of intestine length to body length was low. Distinct sacculations were present in the caecum, but not in the colon. The results suggest that E. coronatus is able to digest a certain amount of structural polysaccharides as contained in plant cell wall. The main fermentation chamber seems to be the caecum. Its digestive morphology implies that E. coronatus relies on a diet higher in energy-rich cell contents than those of other lemur species of similar body size.

Quantitative acoustic analysis of the vocal repertoire of the crowned lemur

Only a preliminary qualitative description of the vocal repertoire of Eulemur coronatus is available and no quantitative study of the calls of any wild or captive crowned lemur has ever been performed. The aim of this study was to verify whether the categories of calls in the crowned lemur's vocal repertoire briefly described on qualitatively bases by Macedonia & Stanger (1994) correspond to discrete phonetic categories. Through all-occurrence and focal animal observations, we recorded the vocal activity of 37 crowned lemurs housed in five institutions, both in Europe and Madagascar. We measured both temporal and spectral properties to describe calls quantitatively. We extracted acoustic parameters in the perspective of the source-filter theory of sound production. From spectrograms, we measured call duration and 6 larynx-related features and, using Linear Predictive Coding spectra, we measured four vocal tract related acoustic properties. From a preliminary qualitative inspection of the spectrograms, we identified the 12 types of vocalizations previously described by Macedonia & Stanger (1994) and partially by Petter & Charles-Dominique (1979). Our quantitative analysis has statistical support for a clear classification of 10 acoustic types: Long Grunt, Long Grunt Clear Call, Grunted Hoot, Grunt, Snort, Click, Hoot, Alarm Call, Tonal Call and Scream. In particular, cross-validated Discriminant Function Analysis successfully classified a high percentage of the vocal signals in the 10 vocal categories. Acoustic cues of both larynx-related and vocal tract-related acoustic parameters also offered preliminary support for both sex and individual identity potential that should be more thoroughly investigated in future studies.