Leisure Walking Research Articles

Design Implications of Walking Speed for Pedestrian Facilities

Pedestrians walk differently on different types of facilities. Walking speeds are governed not only by the width of the facility but also by age and gender, land uses, temporal variations, cell phone usage, carrying baggage while walking, and movement in groups. This paper discusses development of adjustment factors for effective design of pedestrian facilities on the basis of pedestrian walking speeds under such influences on three types of facilities, e.g., sidewalks, wide-sidewalks, and precincts. Eighteen locations are selected in five cities in India, and data are analyzed considering the influencing parameters. Pedestrians walk faster than the population mean walking speed on sidewalks at 71.22 m/min, whereas they walk at a speed of 63.60 m/min on precincts. Exercise and leisure walking speeds of pedestrians are 74.57 m/min and 62.44 m/min, respectively. Significant difference is observed in the walking speed of pedestrians when moving alone or in a group. Pedestrians carrying baggage walk slowe...

A process evaluation of a "physical activity pathway" in the primary care setting

BackgroundLet's Get Moving (LGM) is a systematic approach to integrating physical activity promotion into the primary care setting. LGM combines a number of recommended strategies to support behavior change including brief interventions, goal-setting, written resources, and follow-up support. This study involved a process evaluation of implementing LGM in UK general practice.MethodsThe LGM intervention was implemented in six general practices in London. Practices recruited patients either 'opportunistically' in routine consultations or by letter of invitation sent to patients on the hypertension disease register. A key component of the intervention was the delivery of a brief counselling session aimed at facilitating physical activity behaviour change. Data collection methods included electronic patient records, a practice survey and focus groups and interviews with practitioners.ResultsA total of 526 patients were considered for LGM, 378 via the 'opportunistic' recruitment method and 148 using the disease register approach. Patient interest in the brief counselling session was high although the actual delivery style and content varied between practitioners. Patients were directed towards a variety of physical activity opportunities including local leisure services and walking schemes.ConclusionThe learning from this pilot should inform a revised update of the LGM protocols before the planned dissemination of the intervention which is outlined in the Governments 'Be Active, Be Healthy' physical activity strategy. A robust assessment of effectiveness involving an experimental design and behaviour change measures is also warranted prior to wider dissemination.

The association between physical activity in different domains of life and risk of osteoporotic fractures

A large body of epidemiological evidence suggests an inverse relationship between physical activity and risk of fractures. However, it is unclear how this association varies according to the domain of life in which the activity is undertaken. In this analysis of the European Prospective Investigation of Cancer-Norfolk study, we assessed total and domain-specific physical activity using a validated questionnaire (EPAQ2) in 14,903 participants (6514 men, mean age 62 year) who also underwent quantitative ultrasound of the heel. After a median follow-up of 7.5 years, there were 504 fractures of which 164 were hip fractures. In multivariable linear regression analysis, broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA) was positively associated with total and leisure-time activities while showing no association with transportation and work activities. Home activities were associated with a lower BUA among younger participants. In multivariable Cox proportional-hazards models, moderate activities at home and in leisure time were associated with lower hip fracture risk among women (hazard ratios [HR] 0.51 and 0.55, p value 0.02 and 0.03, respectively). Among men, leisure-time activities were associated with lower risk of hip fracture (HR = 0.58; p for trend < 0.001) whereas activities at home were associated with higher risk of any fracture (HR = 1.25; p for trend = 0.008). Walking for leisure or transport was associated with lower risk of fracture in both men and women. Multivariable fractional polynomial modelling showed a U-shaped association between home activities and fracture risk especially among women. This study suggests that different domains of physical activity may relate differently to fracture risk and these relationships may vary by sex.

Using Pedometers in an Active Scripting Program for Low-Active Older Adults: Healthy Steps Study

Participation in physical activity (PA) is an important determinant of healthy ageing. The New Zealand Green Prescription (GRx) is an efficacious and cost-effective primary care program to improve activity levels through PA prescription and follow-up telephone counselling. PURPOSE: To investigate (with an RCT) the effectiveness of a pedometer-enhanced GRx (compared to a standard GRx) in improving PA, blood pressure, BMI, health-related quality of life, and a range of functional tests in older adults. METHODS: Participants were 330 low-active older adults (mean age 74±6 yrs) recruited through primary care settings. The Auckland Heart Study Physical Activity Questionnaire and SF-36 were administered at baseline to the intervention (pedometer GRx) and control (standard GRx) groups. Blood pressure, height, and weight were also assessed. Participants in the intervention group were given a pedometer and received 3 telephone counselling sessions over 3 months based on accumulating steps to increase PA. Those in the control group also received 3 telephone counselling sessions over 3 months, however, based around increasing PA without a specific focus on accumulating steps. All outcome measures were readministered at 3 months (end of intervention) and 12 months. RESULTS: At 12 months both groups significantly increased their moderate to vigorous PA (p<0.0001), walking for leisure (p<0.0001), and total walking (p<0.0001), with no significant differences between groups. Both groups also showed significant reductions in blood pressure (p<0.0001) and BMI (p=0.004) with no group x time significant effects. Number to treat analysis indicated that to achieve an increase of 60 min of moderate to vigorous PA in 1 person, 2.5 people would need to be treated with the pedometer GRx compared with 3.0 people for the standard GRx. Similarly, to achieve a reduction of 5mmHg in systolic blood pressure, 4.2 people would need to be treated with the pedometer GRx compared with 5.6 for the standard GRx. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this trial indicate the effectiveness of both GRx interventions in increasing PA and reducing blood pressure and BMI with some differential effects of interventions using the number needed to treat procedure. Supported by Health Research Council of New Zealand Grant 05/279 and Sport and Recreation New Zealand.

Exploring the Efficacy and Moderators of Two Computer-Tailored Physical Activity Interventions for Older Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Important health benefits can be derived when low-cost (e.g., computer-tailored) physical activity interventions for older adults demonstrate sustained effects. The purpose of the study was to conduct in-depth analysis on the long-term efficacy of two tailored physical activity interventions for older adults. A randomized controlled trial (n = 1,971) with two computer-tailored interventions and a no-intervention control group was conducted. The two tailored interventions consisted of three tailored letters, delivered during 4 months. The basic tailored intervention targeted psychosocial determinants alone, while the environmentally tailored intervention additionally targeted environmental determinants, by providing tailored environmental information. Self-reported behaviors (i.e., total physical activity, transport walking and cycling, leisure walking and cycling, and sports) were measured at baseline and 12 months. Additionally, potential personal, health-related, and psychosocial moderators of the intervention effects were examined. The environmentally tailored intervention was effective in changing total physical activity, leisure cycling, and sports compared with the basic intervention and control group. No intervention effects were found for the basic intervention. Moderation analysis revealed that participants with a higher age, lower body mass index, and higher intention were unresponsive to the interventions. Providing environmental information is an effective intervention strategy for increasing physical activity behaviors among older adults, especially among certain "at-risk" subgroups such as lower educated, overweight, or insufficiently active participants. Moderation analysis was perceived as a promising method for identifying meaningful subgroups that are unaffected by an intervention, which should receive special attention in future interventions.

Affective messages increase leisure walking only among conscientious individuals

Walking is a way to encourage regular physical exercise among sedentary individuals. Research suggests that highly conscientious individuals are more likely to engage in health behaviours, particularly when they are also motivated to do so. We examine the impact of a brief intervention using an affective (enjoyable) message, an instrumental (beneficial) message and a control condition on leisure walking among individuals high and low in Conscientiousness. Our results indicated that highly conscientious participants who read the affective message engaged in significantly more leisure walking post-intervention when compared to the instrumental condition, control condition and individuals low in Conscientiousness. Results suggest that affective beliefs are an influential source of motivation among highly conscientious individuals for the initiation of physical activity.

Association Between Perceived Environmental Attributes and Physical Activity Among Adults in Recife, Brazil

To evaluate the association between perceived environmental factors and leisure-time and transport-related physical activity. A random-digit-dialing telephone cross-sectional survey in Recife, Brazil, was conducted among individuals aged 16 years or older (n = 2046). Leisure-time and transport-related physical activity were measured using the long version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Three outcome variables were used: leisure-time physical activity (min/wk), transport-related physical activity (min/wk), and walking for leisure (min/wk). A cutoff of 150 min/wk was used for all outcome variables. The environmental module of the questionnaire was based on the short version of the Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale (A-NEWS), and included 12 environmental items. The proportions of subjects reaching the 150-minutes per week threshold were 30.6% for leisure-time physical activity, 26.6% for transport-related physical activity and 18.2% for walking for leisure. Lack of sidewalks and low access to recreational facilities were associated with a lower likelihood of performing 150 minutes per week or more of leisure-time physical activity. Lack of sidewalks was associated with low levels of walking for leisure. Neighborhood aesthetics was inversely associated with transport-related physical activity. Lack of sidewalks and low access to recreational facilities were predictors of low levels of leisure-time physical activity, suggesting that policy strategies aimed at improving these environmental features may be warranted.

Association between Perceived Neighborhood Environment and Walking among Adults in 4 Cities in Japan

BackgroundRecent research highlights the importance of environment as a determinant of physical activity; however, evidence among Japanese is sparse. The aim of this study was to examine the association between perceived neighborhood environment and neighborhood walking for multiple purposes among Japanese.MethodsWe conducted a population-based, cross-sectional study of 1461 Japanese adults (age: 48.2 ± 14.1 years, men: 44.8%). Neighborhood environment and walking were assessed by a validated questionnaire. The odds ratio of active walkers was calculated in relation to environmental characteristics after adjustment for age, sex, and other potential confounders.ResultsParticipants were more likely to walk when they perceived that there was high residential density (odds ratio, 1.47; 95% confidence interval, 1.11–1.96), fair land use mix–diversity (1.37, 1.04–1.81), good walking/cycling facilities (1.56, 1.19–2.04), and attractive aesthetics (1.49, 1.14–1.95). Environmental factors associated with walking differed with respect to the purpose for walking. The environmental characteristics associated with walking for daily errands and with walking for commuting were similar, and included residential density and land use mix. Walking for leisure was associated with walking/cycling facilities, aesthetics, and traffic safety. Stratified analyses showed some sex-specific associations. Among women, there was an unexpected inverse association of leisure walking with both residential density and land use mix–diversity.ConclusionsThe association between neighborhood environment and walking differed by walking purpose. The results were generally consistent with those of studies conducted in Western countries, except for the association of high residential density and good land use mix–diversity with less leisure walking in women. These results suggest possible targets for environmental interventions to promote walking.

Promoting Physical Activity Through Community-Wide Policies and Planning: Findings From Curitiba, Brazil

Community programs have been suggested to be an important and promising strategy for physical activity (PA) promotion. Limited evidence is available regarding knowledge of and participation in these programs in Latin America. To describe participation in and knowledge of community PA programs and to explore associations with leisure-time PA in the city of Curitiba, Brazil. A cross sectional telephone survey was conducted among adults in Curitiba, Brazil (n = 2097). The International Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to determine levels of PA, and specific questions were used to evaluate the extent to which respondents knew about or participated in the programs conducted by the municipality. Logistic regression was used to assess the meeting of PA recommendations in leisure time based on program knowledge and participation. Knowledge of PA programs was high (91.6%) and 5.6% of population participated in the programs. After adjusting for individual characteristics, exposure to Curitiba's PA community programs was associated with leisure-time PA (POR = 2.9, 95% CI = 2.9-3.0) and walking for leisure (POR = 2.4; 95% CI = 2.3-2.4). The associations were stronger among men than among women. Knowledge and participation in Curitiba's community PA programs were associated with meeting recommended levels of PA in leisure time.

Characteristics of Accelerometry Respondents to a Mail-Based Surveillance Study

BackgroundDifferences in the characteristics of respondents and nonrespondents to a survey can be a cause of selection bias. The aim of this study was to determine the sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics of respondents to a field-based accelerometry survey.MethodsA cross-sectional mail survey was sent to 4000 adults (50% male; age 20 to 69 years) who were randomly selected from the registries of residential addresses of 4 cities in Japan. There were 1508 respondents (responding subsample) to the initial questionnaire. A total of 786 participants from the responding subsample also agreed to wear an accelerometer for 7 days (accelerometer subsample). Age, sex, and city of residence were compared between the accelerometer subsample and all 3214 nonrespondents, including those who did not respond to the initial questionnaire. In addition, multiple logistic regression analyses were used to compare the sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics of the accelerometer subsample and the 722 respondents who participated in the questionnaire survey but not the accelerometry (questionnaire-only subsample).ResultsAs compared with all nonrespondents, the accelerometer subsample included significantly more women, middle-aged and older adults, and residents of specific cities. Multiple logistic regression analyses comparing the accelerometer and questionnaire-only subsamples revealed that participation in the accelerometry survey was greater among nonsmokers (odds ratio, 1.35; 95% confidence interval, 1.02–1.79) and persons who reported a habit of leisure walking (1.56, 1.21–2.01).ConclusionsSex, age, city of residence, smoking status, and leisure walking were associated with participation in accelerometry. This response pattern reveals potential selection bias in mail-based accelerometry studies.

The effect of a pedometer-based community walking intervention "Walking for Wellbeing in the West" on physical activity levels and health outcomes: a 12-week randomized controlled trial

Background: Recent systematic reviews have suggested that pedometers may be effective motivational tools to promote walking. However, studies tend to be of a relatively short duration, with small clinical based samples. Further research is required to demonstrate their effectiveness in adequately powered, community based studies. Objective: Using a randomized controlled trial design, this study assessed the impact of a 12-week graduated pedometer-based walking intervention on daily step-counts, self-reported physical activity and health outcomes in a Scottish community sample not meeting current physical activity recommendations. Method: Sixty-three women and 16 men (49.2 years ± 8.8) were randomly assigned to either an intervention (physical activity consultation and 12-week pedometer-based walking program) or control (no action) group. Measures for step-counts, 7-day physical activity recall, affect, quality of life (n = 79), body mass, BMI, % body fat, waist and hip circumference (n = 76), systolic/diastolic blood pressure, total cholesterol and HDL cholesterol (n = 66) were taken at baseline and week 12. Analyses were performed on an intention to treat basis using 2-way mixed factorial analyses of variance for parametric data and Mann Whitney and Wilcoxon tests for non-parametric data. Results: Significant increases were found in the intervention group for step-counts (p < .001), time spent in leisure walking (p = .02) and positive affect (p = .027). Significant decreases were found in this group for time spent in weekday (p = .003), weekend (p = .001) and total sitting (p = .001) with no corresponding changes in the control group. No significant changes in any other health outcomes were found in either group. In comparison with the control group at week 12, the intervention group reported a significantly greater number of minutes spent in leisure time (p =

Leisure Participation Pattern of Residents in a New Chinese City

The leisure sector in Chinese cities has flourished in recent years. Lacking leisure studies could compromise resource supply and management. We explored urban residents’ participation in twenty-five leisure activities in Zhuhai, a newly developed city in south China. Leisure activities were classified into four groups based on consumption venue (intrahome and extrahome) and physical activities (passive and active). A face-to-face questionnaire survey included 850 households in seventy residential precincts chosen by a clustered sampling scheme, generating 598 valid questionnaires. Responses were solicited on participation level on weekdays and holidays, leisure time, leisure companions, leisure barriers, use of urban green spaces, and respondents’ socioeconomic profile. Multiple and logistic regressions were computed. Intrahome activities have higher participation rates than extrahome activities, and passive notably higher than active. The weekday leisure pattern is similar to holiday patterns despite more leisure time. Watching television, chatting with families or friends, and leisure reading are premier intrahome activities. Walking for leisure and shopping are the main extrahome engagements. Intrahome activities are more prominent among urban-based, homebound, passive-oriented, sedentary, and individualistic noninteractive types, with health implications. Middle-aged residents have less leisure time vis-à-vis young adults. Shortage of leisure resources and poor recreation venue management have created critical participation barriers. Residents prefer conveniently located and semiprivate neighborhood gardens embedded within residential developments rather than public sites. Young residents prefer to use urban parks, whereas middle-age and older residents prefer local sites. Cleanliness and other quality attributes are rated as key determinants for visiting green spaces. The results could inform future policies on leisure development in new Chinese cities.

Effect Of Temporal Domain On Self-reported Walking Behaviors In The California Health Interview Survey

Surveillance of regular physical activity (PA) in health surveys provides key information for tracking prevalence and trends over time. However, many aspects of question design can influence the validity and reliability of such instruments. PURPOSE: This study assessed the effect of temporal domain on questions concerning walking behavior (i.e., obtaining self-reports of either (a) number of days or (b) number of times walked per week). METHODS: A subsample (n=6332) of the 2005 California Health Interview Survey (CHIS) were asked about leisure and transportation walking behaviors independently, using questions in both temporal domains. Respondents were asked the number of days or times they walked for both leisure and transportation in the past 7 days, and the usual amount of time spent per day or episode. Question order was randomized by temporal domain. Minutes walked per week (mean±SE) and adherence to PA guidelines (i.e., minimum 150 min/wk) were assessed overall and by age, race/ethnicity, and education. RESULTS: Minutes of leisure walking per week remained stable across temporal domain (days = 71.4±2.5 min; times = 73.4±2.4 min), but transportation walking was divergent (days = 70.4±3.2 min; times = 52.5±2.6 min). The pattern of higher reported transportation walking from the days domain was consistent across age, race/ethnicity, and education subgroups, with the exception of respondents with less than a high school education (days = 62.9±4.7 min; times = 63.2±4.7 min). Adherence to guidelines for leisure walking was stable across temporal domain (days = 14.9±0.6%; times = 14.9±0.6%), but varied as a function of domain for transportation walking (days = 10.4±0.6%; times = 7.8±0.5%). Concerning within-respondent effects, a large order effect (i.e., dependent on whether number-of-days versus times was asked first) was observed for reports based on days for transportation walking (days first = 87.8±2.9 min; times first = 52.3±2.5 min). In contrast, order effects for transportation walking in the times domain, and for leisure walking (in either domain) were less pronounced. CONCLUSION: Temporal domain of PA questions within the CHIS survey influenced self-reported transportation walking time and resulting adherence estimates, with higher estimates reported based on "days" than "times" questions.

Psychosocial correlates of leisure-time walking among Australian adults of lower and higher socio-economic status

Adults of lower socio-economic status (SES) participate less in physical activity than those of higher SES. Understanding the correlates of physical activity participation and how these may differ between socio-economic groups can inform policies and physical activity promotion strategies. The psychosocial correlates of leisure-time walking (the most common voluntary physical activity of adults) were assessed using a survey of 2488 randomly sampled Australian adults (response rate = 74.2%). Among respondents of higher SES, there were higher levels of positive cognitions towards physical activity, and walking for leisure was more prevalent than among those of lower SES. Relationships of psychosocial attributes with leisure-time walking differed by SES. The strongest correlate of leisure-time walking was perceived barriers for lower SES adults and enjoyment for those of higher SES. Social support from friends was associated with walking for both groups, while the effect of support from family was significant only for adults of lower SES. Strategies influencing leisure-time walking may have to target the specific needs of different socio-economic groups. For example, removing perceived barriers may be more appropriate to promote walking among lower SES adults. Interventions tailored for lower SES groups may help close the socio-economic gap in physical activity participation.

Age Differences in the Relation of Perceived Neighborhood Environment to Walking

The strength of the relationship of environment to physical activity may differ by age group. Older adults were expected to be more affected by environmental attributes than younger adults. The present study examined age-related differences in associations between perceived neighborhood environment and physical activity. Participants were 1623 adults aged 20 to 97 yr divided into five groups: ages 20-39, 40-49, 50-65, 66-75, and 76+. They were recruited from King County/Seattle, WA, neighborhoods selected to vary in land use and median income. Participants completed questionnaires about neighborhood environment attributes and walking for transportation and for leisure purposes. Neighborhood environment, within a 15- to 20-min walk from home, was measured on nine attributes with the validated Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale questionnaire: residential density, proximity to nonresidential land uses, ease of access to nonresidential uses, street connectivity, walking/cycling facilities, esthetics, pedestrian traffic safety, crime safety, and proximity to recreation facilities. Participants reported frequency and duration of walking using the validated International Physical Activity Questionnaire and the Community Healthy Activities Model Program for Seniors. Partial correlations were computed, adjusting for demographics. Walking for transportation was significantly related to multiple perceived neighborhood attributes in all age groups, although walking for leisure was not. Walking for transportation was significantly related to almost all neighborhood environment variables in the youngest age group. In contrast, only two environmental attributes, proximity to nonresidential uses (like shops) and recreation facilities, were moderately correlated with walking for transportation in the two oldest groups. Communities need to be designed with many favorable environmental attributes to support walking for transportation among younger adults. Having nonresidential destinations and recreation facilities within walking distance may be among the most important attributes to support older adults' physical activity.

‘Walk this way’: Public health and the social organization of walking

Recently, public health has turned its attention to walking as physical exercise, with an assumption that increased levels of walking will improve population health through direct physiological effects on the walker, and through the beneficial environmental impact of more ‘active transport’ in a car-dominated transport system. Although there is evidence to support these assumptions, this paper suggests there may be limits to the effectiveness of current policy initiatives because they do not adequately attend to the social organization of walking. Walking is simultaneously experienced as biological reality and as intricately socially constructed. This paper draws on the small literature on the sociology of walking and data on leisure walking as an example to explore how the cultural politics of walking might contribute to an understanding useful for public health. It is suggested that an adequate conceptualization of walking needs to take into account the ways in which it is both socially embodied, relating to the ways in which we learn to move our physical bodies in appropriate ways, but also embedded, in that it relates to the movement of bodies through and in relation to particular material and social environments, with particular ideological effects.

The Effect of Objectively Measured Crime on Walking in Minority Adults

Evaluate the relationship between neighborhood crime and the amount of daily walking by minority adults. This was a cross-sectional study of minority adult walking behavior and crime. Setting. Oakland, California was chosen as the study area because of the substantial spatial variation in levels of criminal activity combined with detailed information on walking trips. The study was restricted to minority adults who responded to the 2000 Bay Area Travel Survey and lived in Oakland, California (n = 359). Data on leisure and utilitarian walking were collected through the 2000 Bay Area Travel Survey and combined with crime data from the Oakland Police Department. A negative binomial model was used to test if violent, property, or quality of life crimes had significant associations with daily minutes walked, controlling for individual and neighborhood covariates. The model showed a significant negative association between violent crime and minutes walked per day (b = -.07; p = .016). Neither property nor quality of life crimes were correlated with amount of walking. Reductions in violent crime may increase opportunities for minority residents in urban areas to participate in physical activity such as walking, thereby providing another reason to pursue anticrime measures. Urban designers' efforts to increase physical activity by improving neighborhood walkability may consider violent crime prevention in their designs.

Are perceptions of the physical and social environment associated with mothers' walking for leisure and for transport? A longitudinal study

Objective The role local neighbourhood environments play in influencing purpose-specific walking behaviors has not been well-explored in prospective studies. This study aimed to cross-sectionally and prospectively examine whether local physical and social environments were associated with mothers' walking for leisure and for transport. Methods In 2004, 357 mothers from Melbourne, Australia, provided information on their local physical and social neighbourhood environments, and in 2004 and 2006 reported weekly time spent walking for leisure and for transport. Environmental predictors of high levels of walking and increases in walking were examined using log binomial regression. Results Public transport accessibility and trusting many people in the neighbourhood were predictive of increases in walking for leisure, while connectivity, pedestrian crossings, a local traffic speed were predictive of increases in transport-related walking. Satisfaction with local facilities was associated with increasing both types of walking, and the social environment was important for maintaining high levels of both leisure- and transport-related walking. Conclusion The findings provide evidence of a longitudinal relationship between physical and social environments and walking behaviors amongst mothers. Enhancing satisfaction with local facilities and giving consideration to ‘walkability’, safety and public transport accessibility during environment planning processes may help mothers to increase walking.

A randomized trial to increase physical activity among native elders

Objective Physical inactivity is common among older populations and American Indians. Our objective was to compare two methods for increasing physical activity and walking among American Indian elders. Methods We conducted a two arm randomized trial to increase physical activity in 125 American Indians aged 50–74 years at the Seattle Indian Health Board in 2005. Participants were randomized into either an activity monitoring ( N = 63) or activity monitoring with a pedometer ( N = 62) arm over a six-week period. Outcomes included self-reported physical activity and well-being, and the 6-min walk test. Results There were no group differences in self-reported physical activities and well-being. The 6-min walk test yielded no between-group differences. All participants increased the frequency of leisure walking ( p < 0.01), frequency of all exercise-related activities ( p < 0.01), frequency of moderate-intensity exercise activities ( p < 0.01), and improved weekly caloric expenditure for all exercise activities ( p < 0.05) by the end of the trial. Conclusions Pedometers did not confer enhanced performance on the physical activity outcomes beyond those achieved through self-monitoring. Physical activity can be promoted among at-risk groups in a brief, inexpensive manner in primary care. Exercise prescription and culturally relevant enhancement strategies may optimize physical activity outcomes for elder American Indians.

Prevalence of transportation and leisure walking among U.S. adults

Objective This paper aims to contrast the demographic correlates of leisure and transportation walking. Methods Using data from the 2005 National Health Interview Survey ( n = 31,482), this paper reports on the prevalence of transportation walking and leisure walking for U.S. adults and examines the variation in prevalence across different socio-demographic groups. The prevalence of transportation walking and leisure walking for U.S. adults (≥ 5 days/week for ≥ 30 min/day) was calculated using data from the 2005 National Health Interview Survey. Results In the United States, 41.5% of adults walked for leisure and 28.2% walked for transportation in intervals of at least 10 min. The highest prevalence of transportation walking was among black non-Hispanic men (36.0%) and Asian/Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander women (40.5%). The highest prevalence of leisure walking was among Asian/Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander men (42.0%) and white non-Hispanic women (46.6%). Leisure walking was most prevalent among respondents with higher incomes and education levels, whereas transportation walking increased in prevalence with education level but decreased with income level. Based on the findings, 6% of U.S. adults were considered regularly active (≥ 5 days/week for ≥ 30 min/day) by walking for transportation and 9% were regularly active by walking for leisure. Conclusion Leisure and transportation walking have distinctly different demographic correlates. These differences should guide interventions aimed at influencing walking for different purposes.