Leisure Preferences Research Articles

A Rejoinder to Henderson's and Jackson's Commentaries on “A Critique of Leisure Constraints”

It is both exciting and intimidating to engage in this dialogue with Ed Jackson and Karla Henderson. Their expertise in the area of leisure constraints is widely acknowledged and their reviews evoke critical questions about our article. Since the main point of this exchange is to raise issues for reflection, we will respond only in general terms to some basic points in their commentaries. Jackson noted some ambivalence in our article, pointing out that we interpret our data as evidence of leisure constraints while also rejecting that interpretation as being too limited. This ambivalence is intentional and reflects our attempt within this paper to capture the processes by which we came to these understandings. Part I data analysis was initially written and submitted as a conference presentation that offered support for leisure constraints. During the four months between acceptance of that paper and the conference itself, our own thinking evolved into a radically different under standing of these data. In fact, when the proceedings were released we did not recognize our own abstract that we had written four months earlier! In this paper we tried to parallel the unfolding nature of that understanding. The ambivalence that Jackson noted is real, in part because the process took us from one understanding to another as we worked our way through the data. But also, by intentionally showing how our data support the leisure constraints framework we hoped to illustrate the vagaries of theoretical interpretation. Our intent was to raise questions rather than to offer answers. Both Henderson and Jackson criticize us for relying too heavily on an older model of leisure constraints and not effectively representing the more recent literature which conceptualizes constraints much more broadly. That may be a major fault in our paper, which was initially drafted in 1992 when the Crawford, Jackson and Godbey (1991) model was still current. However, we feel our discussion would be substantively the same even if it were premised upon the more recent literature. Contemporary discussions of leisure constraints still encourage us to understand people's leisure by viewing it as a process of encountering and negotiating threats and constraints. Whether we used an older model or the more recent literature, we would still reach the conclusion that this perspective seems limited for understanding the breadth of factors that shape people's leisure choices. We have a serious concern about how the original discussions of leisure constraints have evolved to encompass too much. Jackson himself refers to this as the Pacman problem, suggesting that the constraints model eats and incorporates everything that gets in its path. It is ironic, then, that Henderson and Jackson accuse us of using a narrow interpretation of leisure constraints that focuses only on participation. In our view, the broader conceptualizations that they prefer (relating constraints to factors that shape preference or experience) would simply magnify our concern. It was troubling enough when leisure in the presence of constraints was viewed as evidence of successful constraint negotiation; now it appears that our leisure preferences and experiences are, themselves, the consequence of constraints or constraint negotiation. The all-encompassing and irrefutable nature of this claim illustrates how the constraints framework has evolved into a pervasive system of beliefs that shape and filter the way that many researchers see every aspect of leisure. …

The impact of health on retirement behaviour: empirical evidence from West Germany.

In this paper, the relative importance of an individual's health status on retirement behaviour is analysed within the framework of a structural, discrete-time hazard rate model which is estimated using a balanced panel of elderly West German men. The results obtained reveal that the presence of chronic complaints or disability have a significant positive impact on the probability of early retirement. Moreover, the relative intensity of the individual preference for leisure appears to be, ceteris paribus, below average among public sector employees. Education, too, is shown to exert considerable influence on retirement behaviour, but the relationship between an individual's educational status and the probability of early retirement appears to be rather complex. A policy-related simulation experiment based on the estimates is carried out in order to assess the effects of changes in the incentive structure of the existing pension scheme.

The impact of health on retirement behaviour: empirical evidence from West Germany

In this paper, the relative importance of an individual's health status on retirement behaviour is analysed within the framework of a structural, discrete-time hazard rate model which is estimated using a balanced panel of elderly West German men. The results obtained reveal that the presence of chronic complaints or disability have a significant positive impact on the probability of early retirement. Moreover, the relative intensity of the individual preference for leisure appears to be, ceteris paribus, below average among public sector employees. Education, too, is shown to exert considerable influence on retirement behaviour, but the relationship between an individual's educational status and the probability of early retirement appears to be rather complex. A policy-related simulation experiment based on the estimates is carried out in order to assess the effects of changes in the incentive structure of the existing pension scheme. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Assisting older adults with severe disabilities in expressing leisure preferences: A protocol for determining choice-making skills

We evaluated a protocol involving two types of choice presentations for assessing leisure choice-making skills of seven older adults with severe disabilities. Initially when presented with pairs of objects representing choices, choice making was validated through demonstration of an object preference. A more complex choice-presentation format was then employed, involving pictures to represent choices. If the preference identified with objects was not demonstrated using pictures, a replication of the object format occurred to ensure changes in choice making using pictures was not due to a preference change. Five participants demonstrated choice-making skills using objects and two demonstrated choices using pictures. These results reflect the importance of assessing choice-making skills prior to presenting choice opportunities. Suggestions for future research focus on expanding the assessment protocol to include a wider array of choice-making skills and training staff to provide choices in a format commensurate with an individual's skill level.

Childhood play and adolescent leisure preferences: Associations with gender typing and the presence of siblings

Childhood play and adolescent leisure preferences were solicited from a sample of 168 predominately white undergraduate students, who also completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974) and provided ratings of the amount of time spent in play and leisure with same- and opposite-sex siblings. Higher Femininity (F) scores were found among those females who gave higher ratings of interaction with female siblings. The BSRI measures were also predicted by play and leisure preferences for strongly gender-stereotyped activities. Amount of interaction with same- and opposite-sex siblings was associated with activity preferences for both sexes. There was evidence of more sex-stereotyped preferences being given by those with same sex siblings and fewer by those with opposite sex siblings. The results are discussed in terms of the possible influences of siblings upon play and leisure preferences and the differing developmental pathways of male and female sex roles.

OUTPUT, PRODUCTIVITY AND WAGES IN THE BRITISH COAL INDUSTRY BEFORE 1914: A MODEL WITH EVIDENCE FROM THE DURHAM REGION*

ABSTRACTThis paper proposes a model of productivity and wages in the Durham coal industry during 1882–1914. The model predicts a negative relationship between wages and productivity which derives from the industrys production function and wage‐setting arrange‐ ments and does not require or imply a ‘leisure preference’ by miners. It is also suggested that predicted effects of some variables on productivity are different from those proposed by previous investigators. Using modern time‐series methods on data for output per worker and per shift, it is shown that the two measures essentially reflect predicted effects on output and productivity respectively.

Überfluß und Überleben - Risiko, Ruin und Luxus in primitiven Gesellschaften

In their search for "primitive man" anthropologists of the seventies have constructed an "original affluent society" in the Stone Age, when people leda life in leisure and relative superabundance embedded in the harmonies of nature. These early subsistence economies have been reconstructed as basing on the principles of risk minimization and leisure preference. The present article shows that risk minimization is just one element ofa wider spectrum of coping with risks and the danger of ruin. In subsistence economies long- term survival requiresa broad spectrum of different behavioral patterns. In situations of scarcity or danger, the acceptance of calculated risks can increase the chances of survival per saltum. Under less extreme conditions, risk prevention by portfolio formation is generally more effective. as a strategy to reduce f1uctuations. Risk prevention can finally be made more profitable by suitable technological management of f1uctuations. Thusa risk spiral as a dynamizing principle in the development of complex societies is genera ted: The reduction ofa particular risk leads to new types of uncertainty which in turn require further (risky) innovations. This mechanism createsa permanent innovation pressure responsible for the restJess transformations in complex societies. Beyond surplus and luxury, the article presents elements of alternative risk strategies and cost-benefit conditions which come into play with the evolution of alternative modes of subsistence. This may be interesting for future developments.

Subjective health measures and state dependent reporting errors.

The use of subjective health measures in empirical models of labour supply and retirement decisions has frequently been criticized. Responses to questions concerning health may be biased due to financial incentives and the willingness to conform to social rules. The eligibility conditions for some social security allowances, notably Disability Insurance benefits, are contingent upon bad health. Even if the decision to apply for a disability allowance is to some extent motivated by financial considerations or a relatively strong preference for leisure, respondents will be inclined to play down these motives and emphasize the importance of their health condition. As a consequence, reporting errors may depend on the labour market status of the respondent and self-reported health variables will be endogenous in labour supply and retirement models. The objective of this paper is to assess the importance of state dependent reporting errors in survey responses and to propose and estimate a model that can be used to account for this kind of systematic mis-reporting. The estimation results indicate that among respondents receiving Disability Allowance, reporting errors are large and systematic. Using such subjective health measures in retirement models may therefore seriously bias the parameter estimates and the conclusions drawn from these.

Gender, race, and subjective social class and their association with leisure preferences

Abstract This study examines the leisure preferences of subgroups defined by gender, race, and subjective social class. The multiple hierarchy stratification perspective and the class polarization perspective provided the theoretical rationale for the study, and a secondary data set from a national probability telephone survey was used. The interviews obtained information regarding the leisure preferences of adults age 21 to 65. From 2,148 contacts, 1, 711 interviews were completed. The results provide partial support for the study's hypotheses. Poor‐working‐class Black women were distinct from White men and women and middle‐class Black men, but they were similar to the other Black groups. As hypothesized, the leisure preferences of middle‐class Black and White men were similar. However, contrary to the study's hypothesis, Black men of different classes did not exhibit greater dissimilarity when compared with Black women of different classes.

Relationship of childhood leisure preferences to adult museum participation

Relationship of childhood leisure preferences to adult museum participation

The Benefits of Personality-Leisure Congruence: Evidence and Implications

It is widely recognized that leisure participation has a beneficial effect on satisfaction, psychological well-being and health (Coleman, 1993; Coleman & Iso-Ahola, 1993; Schreyer & Driver, 1989; Tinsley & Tinsley, 1986). Among the psychological aspects listed by many scholars as conducive to these positive outcomes are the opportunity for skills utilization, self expression and self actualization (Crandall, 1980; Kleiber & Rickards, 1985; Tinsley & Tinsley, 1986), need gratification (Iso-Ahola, 1984, 1989; Tinsley & Tinsley, 1986), freedom of choice (Iso-Ahola, 1984; Mannell, 1980), and an avenue to develop one's sense of competence, autonomy and self-determination (Coleman & Iso-Ahola, 1993; Iso-Ahola, 1980, 1989; Witt, Ellis & Niles, 1984).Yet, aside from the studies on need gratification (e.g., Lounsbury & Polik, 1992; Tinsley & Tinsley, 1986), insufficient attempts have been made to identify the optimal choice of leisure activities for a particular individual for meeting the above psychological aspects and producing positive outcomes. The tendency in recent years has moved from studying the beneficial effects of various leisure pursuits (such as tourism or mountaineering) towards identifying the forms of leisure participation that contribute more than others to well-being and health (Caldwell, Smith, & Weissinger, 1992; Ragheb, 1993). However, no systematic efforts have been made to further explore individual differences in benefit from different types of activities. As Van Langenhove (1992) correctly pointed out, the same leisure pattern could mean something completely different for different individuals. Thus, what is now needed is research that would elucidate what types of leisure activities cause or facilitate particular types of benefits, for what types of persons, and why (Schreyer & Driver, 1989). The present study is a step in this direction.This study was based on the assumption, common to several leisure research works (e.g., Blocher & Siegel, 1984), that leisure activity choices, like vocational choices, are an expression of the individual's personality. This assumption was tested in our earlier study (Melamed & Meir, 1981), which examined whether Holland's (1973) theory of vocational choice could be generalized to leisure activity choice. Central to Holland's theory was the assumption, similar to the theorized psychological aspects of leisure participation, that search for environments that will allow them to exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles (Holland, 1985a, p.4). We used Holland's typology to classify persons and their leisure activities into one of six occupational personality types [Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), or Conventional (C)]. We found that Realistic persons tended to select realistic leisure activities, Investigative types tended to select investigative leisure activities, and so on. This supported the hypothesis that people tend to select leisure activities congruent with their personality type. This hypothesis was also confirmed in other studies (Cairo, 1979; Taylor, Kelso, Cox, Alloway, & Matthews, 1979; Varca & Shaffer, 1982). Varca and Shaffer (1982) demonstrated the stability of choice of leisure activity type over a nine-year period, which is in accord with the stability of leisure preferences found in other studies (e.g., Crawford, Godbey & Crouter, 1986).Our previous study (Melamed & Meir, 1981) included persons with congruent/incongruent occupations and congruent/incongruent leisure activities; this allowed testing some of the conceptually feasible functional relationships between work and leisure activities, namely, extension/spillover versus compensatory/complementary (Kabanoff, 1980; Parker, 1971; Staines, 1980; Wilensky, 1960). We found that persons in congruent occupations were vocationally satisfied and conceived their preferred leisure activities as an extension of the types of activities they do at work. …

A Cross-National Study of Leisure Activities

The primary goal of this paper is to extend leisure research efforts into the cross-national arena. Five leisure dimensions, drawn from the literature, were operationajized with a set of leisure choice activities. Students and one of their parents in four countries responded to questions about their levels of participation in these activities. Comparing and assessing factor structures across countries, three of the five dimensions were found to be adequately represented by the data. Meaningful differences between respondents' leisure choices and orientations (respondent's composite scores on a set of related activities) are assessed and discussed within segments in the four countries studied. The approach used seems promising in offering greater understanding of cross-cultural leisure choices.

Planning, Stochastic Shocks and Labour Contracts of Female Workers and Their Welfare Implications

In this paper we analyse labour contracts for female workers when there are planned shifts or stochastic shocks to their leisure preference which arise as a result of planned or unplanned pregnancy. It will be shown that, when female workers plan their pregnancy, contract firms can induce self-selection among workers through a contract that stipulates a wage profile steeper than the spot wage profile so that self-selected workers who accept the contract will not quit. Even though information on shifts in leisure preference is asymmetric, first-best efficiency can be achieved through self-selection. When female workers do not plan childbirths, however, self-selection contracts are not possible. When the stochastic shocks are realized, there will be quits. Planning is Pareto-superior to no planning. At equilibrium workers will be allocated optimally; workers who have low marginal value of home time will join contract firms and make specific investments, while those who have high marginal value will seek employment in the Walrasian market and make no specific investments. Some implications of these results are also discussed in the paper.

Race, Class, and Leisure Activity Preferences: Marginality and Ethnicity Revisited

This study examines the relationship between race, leisure preferences, and class awareness. Based on interest-group theory of class identification, we hypothesized that blacks and whites who defin...

Do Values Share Universal Content and Structure? A South African Test

Schwartz recently proposed a new theory concerning the universal content and structure of values, a new value survey for measuring them and reported empirical support from 35 countries for many elements of the theory. In this article the validity of the theory is examined in two studies of diverse groups not previously tested using multiple value measurement instruments. In Study 1, 1364 subjects from the four major racial groupings completed the Rokeach Value Survey, a widely used values scale applicable to the theory, as part of a doctoral research project not previously analysed in this way. Study 2 subjects completed the new Schwartz Value Survey as part of a study of consumption patterns, media use, and leisure preferences of skilled labour, administrative and managerial staff commissioned by the Midrand Town Council. The results of both studies are consistent with the new theory and suggest important implications regarding value meaning in South Africa. The authors close by suggesting directions for future southern African values research.

Neither Too Young Nor Too Old: A Comparison of Visitor Characteristics

ABSTRACTIdentification and characterization of two key visitor groups by age emerged from a year‐long visitor research project at the Chicago Botanic Garden. the two groups (seniors aged 55 and older, who dominated the audience profile in all four seasons, and younger guests, aged 18 to 34, who were minimally present) are discussed in relation to their differing leisure preferences, expectations of the Garden, psychographics, and demographics, and to the impact their distinct leisure interests and values will have on program planning and marketing. Applying the data to decision making and action requires prioritizing the Garden's responses to each of these audiences regarding use of interpretive materials/activities, design of special events and learning programs, development of a family discovery center, expansion of environmental programming, and emphasis on the social experience of a casual visit to the Garden.

Leisure Orientations and Self-Esteem in Women with Low Incomes Who are Overweight

The view that leisure research has been androcentric has precipitated an increased interest in women's leisure. Likewise, recent concerns about socio-cultural diversity have underscored the importa...

Mobilität als Strategie und Ressource – Das Beispiel von Jäger-Sammlern und Hirtennomaden

The so-called primitive societies, such as nomadic cultures and hunters-gatherers, successfully employed mobility as a strategy for sustainably exploiting extensive geographical areas, or even as a resource in itself. Likewise, up to the beginning of the twentieth century, our immediate ancestors utilized mobility in the form of migrations to take advantage of horizontally dispersed resources. Yet today, mobility itself has become a type of behavior that indiscriminately devours all kinds of resources. Supported by numerous examples from the field of ethnology, the present study shows how certain subgroups of the human species succeeded in controlling both man and the environment through mobility. Taking the form of both regional and long-distance migrations, this type of mobility was one of man's many strategies to survive in a fickle environment. In pre-modern societies, mobility was a key component of the group's survival strategy. The success of this type of survival hinged on the ability of the species' subgroups to incorporate man's domination of nature into society at large. This system of survival operated primarily according to the imperative or central category of reducing risk (safety first principle, risk-avoiding strategy). This is inseparably bound up with two other categories: the leisure preference and underproductivity, by which is meant the under-exploitation of an ecological niche's carrying capacity. A mere reading of the lessons history has to offer us is not likely to result in a reorientation of our behavior. More promising towards that end, however, would be a thorough understanding of the strategies employed by the human race that have enabled it to evolve successfully without destroying its basis of survival. Up until the dawn of the modern era, mankind's mobility remained confined to the main categories of subsistence economies in many societies. Then, as it began to free itself from these constraints, mobility took on more dangerous aspects, and is today a problem that demands our immediate attention.

Cross-cultural differences in occupational stress among British and German managers

Abstract A total of 255 managers (133 German and 123 British), predominantly from middle and upper management level working in diverse companies throughout both countries, responded to a survey assessing occupational stress and job satisfaction (Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI)) and leisure preferences (Leisure Interest Inventory (FIF)). A principal-components analysis of the correlation matrix between the 25 OSI subscales produced a 6–7 factor solution similar to that found for the British sample. The internal consistencies of the scales were satisfactory: they were lowest for ‘type A’ and ‘coping’, and highest for ‘job-related stress’ and ‘job satisfaction’. National differences were observed on several of the OSI subscales. German managers expressed higher sources of job-related pressure, particularly in terms of ‘home/work interface’, ‘organizational structure and climate’ and ‘career and achievement’, as well as lower job satisfaction on ‘the job itself and ‘organizational processes’. Furthermore, both national groups displayed high overall ‘type-A behaviour’ and ‘internal locus of control’. German managers revealed significantly higher scores on most coping subscales (‘social support’, ‘task strategies’, ‘time’ and ‘involvement’) with the exception of ‘home and work relationships’, which was higher for the British sample. The German managers displayed significantly better mental health than their British counterparts. Overall job pressure was associated with job dissatisfaction, low internal locus of control, and inferior psychological and physical health. Type-A-behaviour scores were negatively correlated with external locus of control and positively with job satisfaction. Internal locus of control was associated with high job-related pressure, high job satisfaction and mental and physical health. Job satisfaction was related to both psychological and physical health. (All findings replicated for both national groups.)

Work attitudes and leisure preferences: Sex differences

Women expressing a preference for the traditionally male sex-typed competitive styles of leisure preferences (e.g. basketball, volleyball and handball) yielded substantially higher scores on work-oriented competitiveness. Furthermore, women who preferred to avoid competitive off-work activities demonstrated significantly different work attitude profiles compared with the competitive-oriented individuals, in terms of lower competitiveness at work, work ethic, achievement motivation and achievement/confirmity. This spill-over between work and leisure was also observed amongst men, but was less marked. Men who conform to their role-appropriate stereotype (preference for competitive ball games involving physical feats and bodily coordination) were more inclined to display high achievement motivation and greater feelings of competitiveness at work. A preference for competitive styles of leisure was further linked to a high valuation of money. The relationship between exercise and work attitudes was also moderated by gender: women who exercised on a regular basis, in contrast to men, revealed work attitude profiles significantly different from those of non-exercisers.