Leg Movements Research Articles

The prevalence of sleep disorders in Iranian adults - an epidemiological study.

Sleep disorders can be harmful to our health and treating them can also be expensive. Due to the widespread occurrence and impact of sleep disorders, it is valuable to investigate and study them from an epidemiological perspective. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of sleep disorders among Iranian adults in 2022. This is a cross-sectional study that examines the prevalence of sleep disorders and problems in Iranian society. The participants were selected using a mixed sampling approach (utilizing virtual space and cluster sampling). A two-part package was used for evaluating participants sleep problems, which included a demographic profile form and the Holland Sleep Disorders Questionnaire. After collecting the data, appropriate statistical tests in SPSS version 25 were utilized for analysis. A total of 6013 questionnaires were fully filled out for this research, with participants answering the specific questions. The participants' score on sleep disorders was 1.94, which means 44.1% of them suffer from sleep disorders. The results indicated that the prevalence of sleep disorders in this study was as follows: insomnia (35%), parasomnia (35.3%), circadian rhythm sleep disorder (38.4%), hypersomnia and excessive daytime sleepiness (39%), restless leg syndrome and leg movements during sleep (43%), and breathing disorders related to sleep (38.4%). The prevalence of sleep disorders among the study participants demonstrated a significant relationship with most of their demographic variables (P < 0.001). The Pearson correlation coefficient also revealed an inverse and significant relationship between the prevalence of sleep disorders in the study participants and their age, monthly household income, and BMI (P < 0.001). Overall, the results depicted a relatively high prevalence of sleep disorders in the studied community. These findings emphasize the need for interventions to prevent and treat sleep disorders in society.

A Wushu Leg Gesture Recognition Algorithm Based on Random Forest and Bone Feature Extraction (RF-SFE)

Addressing the challenges of complex movement trajectories and rapid action changes in martial arts performances, this study introduces a novel posture recognition algorithm based on Random Forest and Skeletal Feature Extraction (RF-SFE) for martial arts leg movements. Unlike traditional posture recognition methods that struggle with accuracy, RF-SFE aims to provide intelligent analysis of training postures to assist practitioners in efficient training. The algorithm initially employs advanced skeletal feature extraction techniques to identify and articulate the relative positions and movements specific to martial arts. These extracted spatial features enhance the flexibility in modeling the unique dynamics of martial arts. Subsequently, Random Forest classification is utilized to categorize different leg movements, leveraging its strength in handling high-dimensional data and providing robust classification. Comparative experiments on diverse martial arts posture datasets demonstrate a significant improvement in recognition rates over baseline methods. This validates the effectiveness of the RF-SFE method in recognizing martial arts postures, offering scientific guidance for practitioners’ training regimens.

Type Synthesis of a Novel Class of One-DOF Multi-Mode Parallel Mechanisms

Abstract Multi-mode parallel mechanisms (PMs) are a class of reconfigurable mechanisms that can switch between different operation modes without the need for disconnection and reassembly. Although a number of multi-DOF multi-mode PMs have been presented in the literature, very few 1-DOF multi-mode PMs have been proposed. This paper deals with the type synthesis of a novel class of 1-DOF multi-mode PMs, which have one 1-DOF translation mode and at least one 1-DOF planar motion mode, using a construction method by leveraging symmetry of mechanisms and merging two multi-mode mechanisms. By inserting a revolute (R) joint into Sarrus-6R like six-joint mechanisms, 1-DOF two-mode two-legged PMs, which are composed of a moving platform and a base connected by one three-joint leg and one four-joint leg, are constructed first. From each 1-DOF two-mode two-legged PM, one can construct a 1-DOF two-mode three-legged PM by adding a third four-joint leg which is the mirror image of the four-joint leg about the plane of motion of the three-joint leg. Subsequently, 1-DOF three- and four-mode three-legged PMs are constructed by merging two 1-DOF multi-mode three-legged PMs. The instantaneous DOF of the above multi-mode PMs in a transition configuration is analyzed using screw theory. This work complements the existing approaches to the type synthesis of multi-mode PMs and hybrid reconfigurable mechanisms.

Spectral EEG and heart rate changes associated with leg movements during the suggested immobilization test in patients with restless legs syndrome.

Restless legs syndrome is usually associated with periodic limb movements during sleep, which are defined as repetitive, stereotyped movements in sleep. Changes in spectral analysis of electroencephalography and heart rate were shown to be associated with periodic limb movements during sleep and non-periodic leg movements in sleep. Considering the circadian distribution of symptoms of restless legs syndrome, we investigated spectral electroencephalography and heart rate accompanying periodic limb movements, isolated leg movements and short-interval leg movements during suggested immobilization test. The mean age of 53 patients was 51.9 ± 13 years, 54.7% were females. Prominent increases in electroencephalography activation were associated with periodic limb movements, isolated leg movements and short-interval leg movements during the suggested immobilization test, which were significant in all spectral bands (p < 0.001). An increase in all electroencephalography bands started ~10 s before periodic limb movements, isolated leg movements and short-interval leg movements; increases in delta and theta band activities ended ~10 s after the movements, while increases in alpha and beta band activities lasted for about ~20 s. Maximum increases in delta, theta, alpha and beta bands were all observed after periodic limb movements and short-interval leg movements, but before isolated leg movements in theta and alpha bands, and after isolated leg movements in delta and beta bands. A notably longer increase in alpha and beta bands was evident for periodic limb movements and short-interval leg movements. An increase in heart rate was prominent at 4-12 s after movement onset in short-interval leg movements, being significantly higher than those associated with periodic limb movements and isolated leg movements. Our study shows that, in patients with restless legs syndrome, periodic limb movements, isolated leg movements and short-interval leg movements during suggested immobilization test are associated with prominent cortical and cardiac activation, which warrants confirmation in larger restless legs syndrome cohorts and requires long-term follow-up studies to delineate its possible clinical consequences.

Development of a Load‐Bearing, Terrain‐Adaptive Hexapod Robot With Chebyshev‐Linkage Legs

ABSTRACTThis study introduces an exploratory design for a hexapod load‐carrying robot, aiming to address challenges commonly associated with quadruped robots, including limited load capacity and high control complexity. By leveraging a Chebyshev linkage‐based overconstrained leg‐foot architecture that combines high rigidity and low friction, along with a multi‐drive system for lateral movement, we propose a robot with improved adaptability to diverse terrains, such as snow, sand, puddles, ice, and deserts. This versatility suggests potential applications in areas such as factory inspection, field reconnaissance and transport, and desert exploration. Using static and dynamic analyses, we evaluated the leg structure's stress distribution and motion requirements, employing simulations in Workbench and Adams to cross‐validate our theoretical calculations. The development of a prototype and its subsequent testing under various environmental conditions aimed to demonstrate the design's practicality and the robot's operational capabilities in real‐world settings. Although the findings indicate progress toward enhancing load‐bearing capabilities and terrain adaptability with reduced control complexity, further research and development are necessary to fully realize the potential of such robotic systems in practical applications.

Utilizing Multiple Triboelectric Nanogenerator Sensors and Signal Processing Technology for Monitoring Periodic Leg Movements of Sleep

High-quality sleep is essential for both physiological and cognitive functions. However, periodic leg movements of sleep (PLMS), an involuntary phenomenon during sleep, affects millions of people worldwide, contributing to sleep fragmentation and functional impairments. The accurate monitoring of PLMS is important for identifying and addressing these issues. Traditional methods, such as polysomnography (PSG), which monitor the bare tibialis muscle movements in clinical environments, may not adequately reflect the natural sleep patterns at home. They are costly and unsuitable for long-term studies. In recent years, there has been growing interest in using flexible sensors for sleep monitoring. Previous studies have applied triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) as flexible sensors to detect muscle movements during sleep. However, distinguishing true PLMS from false signals caused by external factors, such as blankets, remains a challenge. This study proposes a method using three TENG sensors placed on the dorsum, ankle, and tibialis, respectively, along with signal processing techniques to enhance the accuracy of PLMS detection. This study provides a cost-effective, comfortable method for PLMS monitoring, with the potential for widespread use in home-based sleep studies and long-term care in the future.

Nature's All-in-One: Multitasking Robots Inspired by Dung Beetles.

Dung beetles impressively coordinate their 6 legs to effectively roll large dung balls. They can also roll dung balls varying in the weight on different terrains. The mechanisms underlying how their motor commands are adapted to walk and simultaneously roll balls (multitasking behavior) under different conditions remain unknown. This study unravels the mechanisms of how dung beetles roll dung balls and adapt their leg movements to stably roll balls over different terrains for multitasking robots. A modular neural-based loco-manipulation control inspired by and based on ethological observations of the ball-rolling behavior of dung beetles is synthesized. The proposed neural-based control contains a central pattern generator (CPG) module, a pattern formation network (PFN) module, and a robot orientation control (ROC) module. The integrated control mechanisms can control a dung beetle-like robot (ALPHA) with biomechanical feet to perform adaptive (multitasking) loco-manipulation (walking and ball-rolling) on various terrains (flat and uneven). It can deal with different ball weights (2.0 and 4.6kg) and ball types (soft and rigid). The control mechanisms can serve as guiding principles for solving sensory-motor coordination for multitasking robots. Furthermore, this study contributes to biological research by enhancing the understanding of sensory-motor coordination for adaptive (multitasking) loco-manipulation behavior in animals.

Do pregnant women with restless legs syndrome experience better sleep with physical activity?

Pregnant women benefit greatly from exercise due to its powerful impact on maternal and perinatal outcomes. The purpose of our study was to assess whether exercise improves objective sleep quality in pregnant women suffering from restless legs syndrome. This cross-sectional study is based on data from a large, naturalistic, consecutive cohort study in pregnant women recruited by four sleep centres, in Bologna, Milan and Turin (Italy), and Lugano (Switzerland), named the Life-ON study. Objective sleep parameters of 316 pregnant women were measured using polysomnographic recordings during the second trimester of pregnancy, and a self-reported assessment was used to evaluate physical activity. Pregnant women with restless legs syndrome (n = 91) who engaged in physical activity (n = 28) experienced better sleep efficiency (84.20% versus 82.10%, p = 0.01), less stage 1 sleep (10.50% versus 11.40%, p = 0.04) and wake after sleep onset (52.20 min versus 76.40 min, p ≤ 0.001), as well as reduced periodic leg movements during sleep (5.50 per hr versus 16.40 per hr, p < 0.001) when compared with the sedentary restless legs syndrome group (n = 63). Sleep structure was also better conserved in physically active pregnant women without restless legs syndrome compared with the inactive restless legs syndrome negative group. Overall, this study provides further evidence of the benefits of physical activity in pregnant women by illustrating its positive impact on sleep structure.

Design of a Bionic Spider Robot with a Two-Degrees-of-Freedom Leg Structure and Body Frame

Spiders have unique biological characteristics and excellent maneuverability, making them an ideal model for bionic robot design. However, traditional bionic spider robot designs usually have multiple degrees of freedom and confront many challenges. These challenges include complex control requirements, higher energy consumption, larger size and weight, higher risk of failure, and higher cost. This study proposes a leg design with two degrees of freedom to reduce its control and manufacturing costs. It can better control leg movement and improve leg force through a multi-link mechanism and a dual-motor system. In addition, the triangular gait and hexagonal body structure align the weight of the body with the support point, thereby enhancing stability. This study offers a comprehensive and organized approach to bio-inspired robot design, providing a valuable reference for future bionic robot development.

The Validation of the SOMNOwatch™ Actigraphy System for Periodic Limb Movements in Sleep Assessment.

There is a growing body of evidence regarding the clinical significance of PLMS, and this movement disorder is of concern in both clinical and scientific contexts. Leg actigraphy is a convenient and promising method for screening periodic limb movements in sleep (PLMSs). This study aims to demonstrate the reliability of the SOMNOwatch™ actigraph for detecting periodic limb movements in sleep. Twenty-eight patients, referred to a sleep laboratory for various sleep problems, underwent nocturnal polysomnography with simultaneous one-sided actigraphy using the SOMNOwatch™ actigraph. Recordings of leg movements obtained from both methods were manually scored, calculating the periodic limb movement index (PLMI). The agreement between the methods was assessed through correlation analysis and event-by-event comparison. The correlation between the PLMI derived from PSG and SOMNOwatch™ was high and statistically significant (r = 0.98, p < 0.0001). The SOMNOwatch™ demonstrated a sensitivity of 86.7% and a specificity of 92.3% in detecting PLMS. Similarly, for detecting patients with a PLMI equal to or greater than 15, the sensitivity was 85.7%, and the specificity was 95.2%.

Parental Management Choices and Discordant Ultrasound Findings in Referrals for Fetal Spina Bifida.

The severity of spina bifida aperta can be assessed prenatally by ultrasound. Morphological findings assist parents in choosing between management options. We aimed to document those management choices since the introduction of fetal surgery, and compare initial ultrasound findings prior to referral to findings in a fetal surgery center. Single center cohort study of 245 consecutive fetuses with a second-trimester diagnosis of SBA. Data included nature of referral (for assessment or for surgery), condition-specific findings on ultrasound, and further management. We compared the reported findings on the initial ultrasound to ours for the presence of hindbrain herniation, lesion level, ventricular width, kyphosis, leg movement, and club feet. Seventy-two percent (n=177) of fetuses met the eligibility criteria for surgery; in 60% (n=106) parents opted for fetal surgery. Of 136 patients specifically referred for surgery, 27 were ineligible (20%). Of the others, 93 proceeded with surgery. In up to 28% (n=30) of surgery referrals, eligibility criteria such as lesion level (n=30, 28%) or leg movement (72%, n=78) as severity indicators were not reported. Fetal surgery uptake was high in patients referred for surgery. Second assessment in a fetal surgery center often reveals additional relevant information.

Soft robotic shorts improve outdoor walking efficiency in older adults

Peoples' walking efficiency declines as they grow older, posing constraints on mobility, and affecting independence and quality of life. Although wearable assistive technologies are recognized as a potential solution for age-related movement challenges, few have proven effective for older adults, predominantly within controlled laboratory experiments. Here we present WalkON, a pair of soft robotic shorts designed to enhance walking efficiency for older individuals by assisting hip flexion. The system features a compact and lightweight tendon-driven design, using a controller based on natural leg movements to autonomously assist leg propagation. To assess WalkON's impact on daily walking, we initially conducted a technology assessment with young adults on a demanding outdoor uphill 500 m hiking trail. We then validated our findings with a group of older adults walking on a flat outdoor 400 m track. WalkON considerably reduced the metabolic cost of transport by 17.79% for young adults during uphill walking. At the same time, participants reported high perceived control over their voluntary movements (a self-reported mean score of 6.20 out of 7 on a Likert scale). Similarly, older adults reduced their metabolic cost by 10.48% when using WalkON during level ground walking, while retaining a strong sense of movement control (mean score of 6.09 out of 7). These findings emphasize the potential of wearable assistive devices to improve efficiency in outdoor walking, suggesting promising implications for promoting physical well-being and advancing mobility, particularly during the later stages of life.

Impaired Endothelial And Microvascular Functions In Obese Patients: Analysis Of Blood Flow In The Femoral Artery During Passive Leg Movements

Impaired Endothelial And Microvascular Functions In Obese Patients: Analysis Of Blood Flow In The Femoral Artery During Passive Leg Movements

A study of sleep disorders in Indian children: Tip of the iceberg

BackgroundInsufficient quality and quantity of sleep has dangerous neurodevelopmental outcomes in the form of poor concentration, poor scholastic performance, hyperactivity and obstructive sleep apnea. There is no structured data on prevalence of various sleep behaviours and sleep related disorders in children in India. We aim to study sleep behaviour of children to know the common paediatric sleep related disorders. MethodsWe enrolled 270 children between the age of 1 to 18 years visiting pediatric OPDs for minor ailments between June 2022 to June 2023 using Children Sleep habit questionnaire – (NICHD SECCYD, Wisconsin). Children having clinical features suggestive of obstructive sleep apnoea were further subjected to overnight level 1 Polysomnography study. ResultsMost children had bed time consistency with average sleep duration of Mean ± 2SD (8.58 ± 1.35 h, N=270), which was shorter than global average. Allergic disorders were significantly high with prevalence of allergic rhinitis up to 30 % and asthma between 8-10 % in our study. Prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea on Polysomnography study was 5.6%, parent reported snoring 10 %, restless leg movements 30% and open mouth breathing in 35% Indian children. In our study, Asthma had statistically significant association with sleep disordered breathing and obstructive sleep apnea with p value < 0.01. ConclusionsAsthma has statistically significant association with obstructive sleep apnoea in our study. Proper asthma treatment may reduce the burden of obstructive sleep apnoea in children. There is a growing need to screen children regularly for sleep related issues on routine visits.

Modeling and motion analysis of flexible legged robots using the finite particle method

Robotics with flexible legs have attracted significant attention. Engineers often design and analyze the motion of legged robots from kinematic and biomimetic perspective. However, the influence of flexibility of the feet on robot locomotion is often not given sufficient considerations, which is also very crucial to the motion posture of the flexible legged robots, especially as the soft robots design becomes increasingly popular. The mainly difficulties lies in the traditional numerical methods in handling the dynamic motion analysis with both large rigid motion and large deformation. In this paper, the finite particle method (FPM) is used to simulate the motion and deformation coupled problems of the flexible six-legged robot. A shell-based particle model of a six-leg robot and the contact model between legs and ground are built. Without iterative and modification of the FPM analytical framework, structural nonlinearity is efficiently handled after eliminating rigid body motions by a fictitious reverse motion. The motion and deformation of a single leg with varying leg thickness, locomotion speed, and leg-to-ground friction coefficients were simulated. By analyzing the stress distribution in the leg and the number of contact points with the ground, the mechanical leg was optimized in design. Furthermore, the motion and deformation of the entire six-legged robot were simulated using the FPM. The numerical results' feasibility was validated through comparison with experimental data obtained from robot walking tests. The proposed method effectively simulates the motion and deformation of flexible robots, providing significant insights for the design of soft robots.

Multicenter comparative study of polysomnography outcomes in children with the monogenic disorder sickle cell disease.

Sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) is prevalent in children with sickle cell disease (SCD) and is associated with worse outcomes. This study aims to compare the outcomes of polysomnography (PSG) performed for pediatric patients with SCD at three United States centers. We included children with SCD aged 0-21 who underwent PSG at three American Academy of Sleep Medicine accredited centers: the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB), the University of Florida (UF), and Duke University Hospital (DUH), between 2012 and 2022. Descriptive statistics were used as appropriate to compare the baseline characters and PSG outcomes among the different centers. A total of 210 children with SCD from the three centers were included, with comparable sex, SCD genotypes, hemoglobin, hematocrit levels, and chronic transfusion. Children from the different centers exhibited variations in age (P < .001), BMI (P < .05), mean corpuscular volume (P < .05), and hydroxyurea use (P < .05) at the time of the PSG. Overall, the three centers showed significantly different PSG outcomes. Patients from UF had worse obstructive sleep apnea, oxygenation, and periodic leg movement events, together with lower hydroxyurea usage. While those from DUH showed higher hypoventilation and arousal indices. This multicenter study underscores variations in PSG outcomes among pediatric SCD patients at different centers in the Southeast United States. These findings emphasize the need for standardized approaches to screen for SDB, refer to PSG, and interpret the results in children with SCD. These conclusions may apply to other genetic disorders associated with an increased risk of sleep-disordered breathing.

Microvascular effects of a mixed meal tolerance test: a model validation study

AbstractPurposeEndothelial dysfunction is a pathophysiological change preceding many cardiovascular events. Measuring improvements of endothelial function is challenging when function is already optimal, which may be remediated using a physiological challenge. This study aimed to determine whether imaging assessments can detect microvascular effects of a mixed meal tolerance test (MMTT).MethodsTwenty healthy volunteers (age ≥45 and ≤70 years) underwent two MMTTs at the beginning (Day 1) and end (Day 84) of a twelve‐week period. Imaging methods included laser speckle contrast imaging (LSCI) combined with post‐occlusive reactive hyperaemia (PORH) and local thermal hyperaemia (LTH) challenges, passive leg movement ultrasonography (PLM), and sidestream dark field microscopy (SDFM). Measurements were conducted pre‐MMTT and at 5 timepoints post‐MMTT for PLM and SDFM and 3 timepoints post‐MMTT for PORH and LTH.ResultsNo consistent effects of the MMTT were detected on LSCI LTH, PLM and SDFM endpoints. LSCI PORH maximum perfusion was significantly suppressed 46, 136, and 300 min post‐MMTT administration on Day 1, while residual perfusion decreased significantly 46 and 136 min post‐MMTT on Day 1. However, when repeated on Day 84, PORH endpoints were not significantly affected by the MMTT.ConclusionSDFM, PLM and LSCI LTH endpoints displayed high intra‐subject variability and did not detect consistent effects of MMTT. LSCI PORH endpoints displayed the lowest intra‐subject variability of all assessed endpoints and were affected by the MMTT on Day 1, but not on Day 84. Further standardization of methods or more robust challenges to affect vascular endpoints may be needed.

Comparative analysis of tardigrade locomotion across life stage, species, and disulfiram treatment.

Animal locomotion requires coordination between the central and peripheral nervous systems, between sensory inputs and motor outputs, and between nerves and muscles. Analysis of locomotion thus provides a comprehensive and sensitive readout of nervous system function and dysfunction. Tardigrades, the smallest known walking animals, coordinate movement of their eight legs with a relatively simple nervous system, and are a promising model for neuronal control of limb-driven locomotion. Here, we developed open-source tools for automated tracking of tardigrade locomotion in an unconstrained two-dimensional environment, for measuring multiple parameters of individual leg movements, and for quantifying interleg coordination. We used these tools to analyze >13,000 complete strides in >100 tardigrades, and identified preferred walking speeds and distinct step coordination patterns associated with those speeds. In addition, the rear legs of tardigrades, although they have distinct anatomy and step kinematics, were nonetheless incorporated into overall patterns of interleg coordination. Finally, comparisons of tardigrade locomotion across lifespan, between species, and upon disulfiram treatment suggested that neuronal regulation of high-level aspects of walking (e.g. speed, turns, walking bout initiation) operate independently from circuits controlling individual leg movements and interleg coordination.

EFFICACY OF VEDANASTHAPANA MAHAKASHAYA NIRUHABASTI IN GRIDHRASI VIS-À-VIS SCIATICA: A SINGLE CASE STUDY

Sciatica is an excruciatingly painful ailment that affects one or both legs' sciatic nerves. It's a prevalent illness that impairs leg movement. It is frequently linked to low back discomfort. Because of its intensity, sciatica pain can occasionally interfere with a person's daily activities. It is defined by discomfort or pain along the sciatic nerve. The prevalence of sciatica varies considerably, ranging from 1.2% to 43% worldwide, mainly affecting persons aged 30-60 years. As per the Ayurveda system of medicine, it is named Gridhrasi (Sciatica) one of the most common disorders of Vata. Based on the clinical presentations, it is bifurcated as Vataja and Vata-Kaphaja. Regarding management, contemporary medicine has limitations in providing short-term relief from pain or surgical intervention with side effects. This case study aimed to assess the efficacy of Ayurvedic management, including Shodhana (purification therapies) and Shamana Chikitsa (pacifying therapies) in Gridhrasi. A 45-year-old man who was already diagnosed with Inter vertebral disc prolapsed in L4-L5, correlated with Gridhrasi of both legs two years approached GAMC &amp; H, Mysore and was treated with Panchakarma Chikitsa including Vedanasthapana Maha Kashaya Niruha Basti. Kati Basti, and Patra Pinda Pottali Sweda along with Shamana Chikitsa. The treatment was continued for consecutive 15days. An asymptomatic assessment of the patient was carried out after 15 days, and it got satisfactory results, and the overall quality of life of the patient was significantly improved. For the management of Gridhrasi, the previously indicated therapy provides symptomatic alleviation.

Remote data collection of infant activity and sleep patterns via wearable sensors in the HEALthy Brain and Child Development Study (HBCD)

The HEALthy Brain and Child Development (HBCD) Study, a multi-site prospective longitudinal cohort study, will examine human brain, cognitive, behavioral, social, and emotional development beginning prenatally and planned through early childhood. Wearable and remote sensing technologies have advanced data collection outside of laboratory settings to enable exploring, in more detail, the associations of early experiences with brain development and social and health outcomes. In the HBCD Study, the Novel Technology/Wearable Sensors Working Group (WG-NTW) identified two primary data types to be collected: infant activity (by measuring leg movements) and sleep (by measuring heart rate and leg movements). These wearable technologies allow for remote collection in the natural environment. This paper illustrates the collection of such data via wearable technologies and describes the decision-making framework, which led to the currently deployed study design, data collection protocol, and derivatives, which will be made publicly available. Moreover, considerations regarding actual and potential challenges to adoption and use, data management, privacy, and participant burden were examined. Lastly, the present limitations in the field of wearable sensor data collection and analysis will be discussed in terms of extant validation studies, the difficulties in comparing performance across different devices, and the impact of evolving hardware/software/firmware.