Led Outdoor Activity Research Articles

Gender differences in adolescents’ help-seeking behaviours and intentions for psychosocial problems in led outdoor activities

ABSTRACT Many adolescents who experience psychosocial problems do not often seek help. Help-seeking behaviours and intentions are influenced by personal, social, and structural factors, and they differ by gender. Help-seeking has not been investigated in the led outdoor activity (LOA) domain, in which thousands of adolescents participate annually. The present study investigated gender differences in adolescents’ help-seeking behaviours and intentions for psychosocial problems in LOAs. Existing data from the ‘Understanding and Preventing Led Outdoor Accidents Data System’ (UPLOADS) was analysed to investigate adolescents’ help-seeking behaviours. Additionally, data from an online survey was analysed to investigate adolescents’ help-seeking intentions. More female adolescents sought help for a psychosocial problem compared to male adolescents, but more male adolescents were observed to have experienced a psychosocial problem compared to female adolescents. There were no gender differences in help-seeking intentions. It is recommended that the LOA sector develop gender-specific strategies to encourage adolescents’ help-seeking behaviours.

Heat and sun related medical concerns in Australian led outdoor activities: a three-year prospective study

Active participation in the outdoors is beneficial for health and wellbeing. However, the impact of extreme weather, particularly heat, on safe participation is causing concern for organisations who lead these activities. Local mitigation strategies and acute management of heat- and sun-related illness (HSRI) are generally well understood by researchers and medical practitioners, however, cases continue to occur so further understanding of why this happens is required. This study aimed to identify the number, nature and contributory factors of HSRI in Australian led outdoor activities in order to seek opportunities for their prevention. This study presents a descriptive analysis of contributory factors to HSRI occurring during led outdoor activities. Cases were prospectively collected across 3 years (2014-2017) from a national Australian incident reporting system. Cases were included by identification of keywords linked with sun or heat exposure. From 2,015 incident cases, 48 cases were included: 25 termed heat stroke and 23 as “other adverse outcomes related to sun or heat.” One in three (35%) cases occurred during outdoor walking or running, and one in four occurred while camping. A total 146 contributory factors were identified. These factors were attributed to the activity participant (e.g. competence, decision making); equipment and resources (e.g. food/drink, dehydration); and environment (e.g. hot weather.). Mild to moderate HSRI was identifiable by signs/symptoms. Contributory factors were linked to the individual participant. Potentially, these factors could be mitigated through system focused approaches. Awareness of wider responsibility for preventing HSRI should be promoted across led outdoor activities.

Incident reporting in the outdoors: a systems-based analysis of injury, illness, and psychosocial incidents in led outdoor activities in Australia

Incident reporting systems are a fundamental component of safety management, however, most systems used in practice are not aligned with contemporary accident causation models. This article presents an analysis of a National Incident Dataset (NID) for adverse incidents occurring in the Australian Led Outdoor Activity (LOA) sector. The aim was to investigate the adverse Injury, Illness, and Psychosocial incidents reported to the NID. In total, 1657 injuries, 532 illnesses, and 146 psychosocial incidents were analysed from 357,691 program participation days. The findings show that the rate of incidents per 1000 program participant days in LOAs was 4.6 for injury, 1.5 for illness, and 0.04 for psychosocial incidents, and incident severity was predominately minor. The analysis of systemic contributory factors demonstrates that incidents in LOA are systemic in nature, with multiple levels of the LOA system identified as contributing to adverse incidents. For example, contributory factors were identified across local government (facilities), schools (communication), parents (communication), LOA management (policies and procedures), people involved in the incidents (mental and physical condition), and the environment (terrain) and equipment (clothing). This study presents an assessment of the current state of safety in the Australian LOA sector and demonstrates the utility of applying systems ergonomics methods in practice. Practitioner summary: This article presents an analysis of 1657 injury, 532 illness, and 146 psychosocial incidents occurring in the Australian Led Outdoor Activity (LOA) sector, using a systems ergonomics method. The findings demonstrate the incident charactersitics and how decisions and actions from across the system contribute to adverse incidents in LOAs.

Evaluation of a systems ergonomics-based incident reporting system

IntroductionIncident reporting and learning systems are a fundamental component of safety management. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a novel incident reporting system specific to the Australian Led Outdoor Activity (LOA) sector. The Understanding and Preventing Led Outdoor Accidents Data System (UPLOADS), is a recently introduced systems thinking-based incident reporting and learning system that utilises contemporary safety theory and methods. MethodThe implementation of UPLOADS was evaluated using the RE-AIM framework based on the following dimensions: Reach, Efficacy, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance. A pragmatic evaluation approach was used in which evaluation data were collected through the triangulation of multiple sources including different LOA stakeholders from both the individual organisational level (LOA providers) and LOA sector governance level (LOA industry representatives), incident data collected through the UPLOADS National Incident Dataset, and the online and physical presence of UPLOADS. ResultsThe findings show that a key strength of UPLOADS is its effectiveness as incident reporting tool for improving safety in the LOA sector. However, a weakness of UPLOADS is that it is not being implemented appropriately by the LOA providers. ConclusionOverall, the current findings suggest that UPLOADS incident reporting tool is perceived by SMEs as an effective tool for improving safety in LOA. However, further work is required for UPLOADS to have a greater impact on the LOA sector. Specifically, Implementation of the UPLOADS system requires improvement, as well as additional training and education may be required to upskill and empower LOA providers to improve reporting and enhance the value placed on safety by LOA stakeholders. The RE-AIM framework was an appropriate evaluation framework for understanding the effectiveness of UPLOADS as a LOA sector specific incident reporting and learning system. Practical applicationsThe current findings have practical implications for ergonomics researchers applying evaluation frameworks in the real world, and LOA providers for implementing safety interventions. Lastly, contemporary systems-based incident reporting and learning systems have the capability to enhance the safety practices of the LOA sector.

Applying a systems thinking lens to injury causation in the outdoors: Evidence collected during 3 years of the Understanding and Preventing Led Outdoor Accidents Data System

IntroductionThis article presents a detailed systems analysis of injury incidents from 35 Australian led outdoor activity organisations between 2014 to 2017.MethodInjury incident reports were collected using a specific led outdoor...

Incidents in the Great Outdoors: A systems approach to understanding and preventing led outdoor accidents

Adverse incidents during Led Outdoor Activities (LOA) remains an ongoing concern worldwide. This paper provides a systems analysis of adverse incidents in the Australian Led Outdoor Activity (LOA) sector between 2018-2019. Incidents were reported by 18 LOA organisations via the LOA specific Understanding and Preventing Led Outdoor Accident Data System (UPLOADS). UPLOADS is underpinned by Rassmusen’s risk management framework and associated AcciMap method. In total, 2,457 incidents from 357,691 LOA program participation days were reported, with an incident rate of 6.9 incidents per 1000 program participation days. AcciMap analyses of the incidents revealed that there was a total of 5,442 contributory factors with 3,259 relationships between them, from all levels of the LOA system spanning the activity environment to regulatory and government levels. This paper demonstrates that incidents in LOA are systems issues and that prevention of LOA incidents should focus on removing the network of interacting contributory factors.

An integrated approach to near miss analysis combining AcciMap and Network Analysis

Contemporary safety philosophies, such as Safety II, promote the importance of understanding effective work practices as well as those leading to adverse events. Despite this, little safety research has focussed on identifying and representing these protective practices in incident analysis. This study combined AcciMap and network analysis methods to identify and evaluate the system-wide protective practices occurring within a set of led outdoor activity domain near miss incidents. The analysis was based on subject matter expert surveys and interviews regarding near miss incidents. The findings revealed a large set of interrelated protective factors. These factors were about communication, policy and procedure, individual and organisational behavioural influences, and environmental conditions across the sociotechnical system. It is argued that network analysis should be combined with AcciMap in future incident analyses.

End-user experiences with two incident and injury reporting systems designed for led outdoor activities - challenges for implementation of future data systems

BackgroundInjury and incident (near miss) prevention is heavily dependent upon robust and high-quality data systems. Evaluations of surveillance systems designed to report factors associated with incidents and injuries are essential to understand their value, as well as to improve their performance and efficiency. Despite, this there have been few such evaluations published in the peer-review literature.MethodsThe attitudes and experiences of industry representatives who used one of two variants of an incident and injury surveillance system to collect injury and incident data for the led outdoor activity setting were obtained through an online self-report survey following a 12-month trial. Survey respondents were 18 representatives of 33 organisations who were users of a comprehensive incident reporting and surveillance system – the Understanding and Preventing Led Outdoor Accidents Data System Software Tool (UPLOADS-ST) - and six out of 11 users of a modified system (UPLOADS-Lite). The survey collected information on user experiences in relation to system training, accessibility, ease of use, security, feedback and perceived value to the sector of collating and reporting data across organisations.FindingsOnly four UPLOADS-ST responding users found the system easy to use and just three considered entering incident reports to be easy. However, many considered the training on reporting incidents to be sufficient and that the incident reports contained relevant details. Fewer than half of respondents (seven for UPLOADS-ST, three for UPLOADS-Lite) believed entering data was a good use of staff time and resources. Nonetheless, a majority of respondents (seven for UPLOADS-ST, five for UPLOADS-Lite) found the reporting format easy to read and felt the information provided was useful for their organisation.ConclusionsUsability barriers to incident reporting were identified, particularly for UPLOADS-ST, including time constraints and user friendliness. The majority of users believed aggregating and reporting incident and injury data across organisations would be of value in making the led outdoor activity sector safer. Improving the utility of the surveillance systems will assist in ensuring their sustainability in the led outdoor activity sector.

A sociotechnical design toolkit for bridging the gap between systems‐based analyses and system design

AbstractCognitive work analysis (CWA) is a systems‐based framework for analyzing complex sociotechnical systems; however, its ability to directly inform design has been questioned. The Cognitive Work Analysis Design Toolkit (CWA‐DT) was developed to address this gap. This study describes the development, application, and evolution of the CWA‐DT and examines the extent to which it provides a useful approach to design. The evaluation draws upon five case‐study applications. In three applications, involving the design of public transport ticketing systems, railway level crossing environments and road intersections, the toolkit was used in conjunction with CWA. In addition, we present two case studies where the CWA‐DT was used with other systems‐based analysis frameworks (for the design of incident prevention strategies for led outdoor activities and systemic interventions to improve road safety) to illustrate the flexibility of the toolkit. Based on feedback from participants involved in CWA‐DT design processes, it is concluded that it provides a useful approach for translating human factors analyses into design concepts. Additional applications and adaptations of the approach are encouraged.

Work Domain Analysis of a Regulatory System to Support System Redesign

Led outdoor activities such as rock climbing, canoeing, and hiking, involve intentional engagement with risk. Organizations that provide these activities are obliged to manage risk by eliminating or minimizing health and safety risks so far as is reasonably practicable. Regulating safety across this industry sector therefore presents special challenges. The current regulatory environment for led outdoor activity safety in Victoria, Australia consists of multiple, loosely connected instruments and agencies. This study used Work Domain Analysis to develop a model of the functional structure of the regulatory system. The model was then used in interviews with domain experts to identify problems with the structure, efficiency and effectiveness of the regulatory system. A model of the functional structure of the system was developed and system weaknesses identified. Next steps toward reform of this system and implications for other regulatory regimes are discussed.

‘She’ll be right’. Or will she? Practitioner perspectives on risk assessment for led outdoor activities in Australia

ABSTRACTInadequate risk assessment has been implicated as a contributory factor in the deaths and injuries of participants on led outdoor activity (LOA) programmes in both Australia and overseas. The identification and assessment of risks is a required component of LOA programmes, and multiple risk assessment methods and techniques are available to the practitioner. Little, however, is known about the risk assessment approaches currently applied in practice. This study surveyed Australian LOA practitioners to: (1) determine which risk assessment methods and policy guidance are currently used in practice (if any); (2) understand practitioner perspectives around the utility of risk assessments; and (3) identify perceived challenges and barriers in applying these methods to the LOA context. The results paint a concerning picture of confusion and uncertainty in relation to conducting risk assessments, as well as a lack of policy guidance and formal training. The results imply that new and more suitable methods of risk assessment should be developed, focussing on the development, planning and delivery of led outdoor activities.

Distributed improvisation: a systems perspective of improvisation ‘epics’ by led outdoor activity leaders

Improvisation represents the spontaneous and real-time conception and execution of a novel response to an unanticipated situation. In order to benefit from the positive safety potential of this phenomenon, it is necessary to understand what influences its appropriateness and effectiveness. This study has applied the system-based methodology Impromaps to analysing accounts of improvisation aimed at mitigating adverse safety outcomes. These accounts were obtained from led outdoor activity (LOA) leaders through critical decision method interviews. Influencing factors and interactions have been identified across all system levels. The factors most influential to leaders’ ability to improvise are ‘Policy, procedures and rules’, ‘Organisation culture’, ‘Training’, ‘Role responsibilities’, ‘Communication/instruction/demonstration’, ‘Situation awareness’, ‘Leader experience’, ‘Mental simulation’, ‘Equipment, clothing & PPE’ and ‘Terrain/physical environment’. To enhance the likelihood of effective, appropriate improvisation, LOA providers are recommended to focus on higher level factors over which they are able to exert greater control.Practitioner Summary: To enhance resilience in safety-critical situations, organisations need to understand what influences appropriate, effective improvisation. To elucidate this, the Impromaps methodology is applied to in-depth interview data. The Impromap affords a graphical depiction of the influencing factors and interactions across the system, providing a basis for the development of interventions.

Developing a contributing factor classification scheme for Rasmussen's AcciMap: Reliability and validity evaluation

One factor potentially limiting the uptake of Rasmussen's (1997) Accimap method by practitioners is the lack of a contributing factor classification scheme to guide accident analyses. This article evaluates the intra- and inter-rater reliability and criterion-referenced validity of a classification scheme developed to support the use of Accimap by led outdoor activity (LOA) practitioners. The classification scheme has two levels: the system level describes the actors, artefacts and activity context in terms of 14 codes; the descriptor level breaks the system level codes down into 107 specific contributing factors. The study involved 11 LOA practitioners using the scheme on two separate occasions to code a pre-determined list of contributing factors identified from four incident reports. Criterion-referenced validity was assessed by comparing the codes selected by LOA practitioners to those selected by the method creators. Mean intra-rater reliability scores at the system (M = 83.6%) and descriptor (M = 74%) levels were acceptable. Mean inter-rater reliability scores were not consistently acceptable for both coding attempts at the system level (MT1 = 68.8%; MT2 = 73.9%), and were poor at the descriptor level (MT1 = 58.5%; MT2 = 64.1%). Mean criterion referenced validity scores at the system level were acceptable (MT1 = 73.9%; MT2 = 75.3%). However, they were not consistently acceptable at the descriptor level (MT1 = 67.6%; MT2 = 70.8%). Overall, the results indicate that the classification scheme does not currently satisfy reliability and validity requirements, and that further work is required. The implications for the design and development of contributing factors classification schemes are discussed.

Not as simple as it looks: led outdoor activities are complex sociotechnical systems

ABSTRACTRecent research is providing valuable insights into safety by applying sociotechnical systems (STS) theory to led outdoor activity (LOA) work systems. The LOA domain involves provision of supervised or instructed activities such as kayaking, rock climbing and camping. Despite these successful applications, questions persist regarding the extent to which STS theory and methods are applicable, given the apparently simplistic nature of the domain. This paper seeks to evaluate the validity of systems theoretic approaches by comparing a typical LOA work system with established characteristics of STS and complex systems. Features of the LOA work system are compared with established characteristics of complexity, then considered in relation to STS theory principles. The findings show that this system of work is indeed both complex and sociotechnical. It is concluded that application of STS theory and methods is both appropriate and required to attain improvements in practice and safety in LOA work systems.

Designing System Reforms: Using a Systems Approach to Translate Incident Analyses into Prevention Strategies.

Advocates of systems thinking approaches argue that accident prevention strategies should focus on reforming the system rather than on fixing the “broken components.” However, little guidance exists on how organizations can translate incident data into prevention strategies that address the systemic causes of accidents. This article describes and evaluates a series of systems thinking prevention strategies that were designed in response to the analysis of multiple incidents. The study was undertaken in the led outdoor activity (LOA) sector in Australia, which delivers supervised or instructed outdoor activities such as canyoning, sea kayaking, rock climbing and camping. The design process involved workshops with practitioners, and focussed on incident data analyzed using Rasmussen's AcciMap technique. A series of reflection points based on the systemic causes of accidents was used to guide the design process, and the AcciMap technique was used to represent the prevention strategies and the relationships between them, leading to the creation of PreventiMaps. An evaluation of the PreventiMaps revealed that all of them incorporated the core principles of the systems thinking approach and many proposed prevention strategies for improving vertical integration across the LOA system. However, the majority failed to address the migration of work practices and the erosion of risk controls. Overall, the findings suggest that the design process was partially successful in helping practitioners to translate incident data into prevention strategies that addressed the systemic causes of accidents; refinement of the design process is required to focus practitioners more on designing monitoring and feedback mechanisms to support decisions at the higher levels of the system.

Rasmussen's legacy in the great outdoors: A new incident reporting and learning system for led outdoor activities

Jens Rasmussen's seminal risk management framework and accompanying Accimap method have become highly popular in safety science circles. Despite this, widespread adoption of the model and method in practice has not yet been achieved. This paper describes a project involving the development and implementation of an incident reporting and learning system underpinned by Rasmussen's risk management framework and Accimap method. The system was developed for the led outdoor activity sector in Australia to enable reporting and analysis of injuries and near miss incidents, with the aim of supporting the development of more effective countermeasures. An analysis of the data derived from the first 3 months use of the system by 43 organisations is presented. The outputs provide an in-depth Accimap-based analysis of all incidents reported by participating organisations over the 3 month period. In closing, the importance of developing usable domain specific tools to support translation of Ergonomics theory and methods in practice is discussed.

Looking Beyond People, Equipment and Environment: Is a Systems Theory Model of Accident Causation Required to Understand Injuries and Near Misses During Outdoor Activities?

The National Incident Database (NID) provides a standardised, industry-wide, approach to incident reporting for the outdoor sector in New Zealand (NZ). The aim of this study was to determine whether the NID contributing factor categories (i.e. people, equipment and environment) are sufficient for classifying the data that has been collected on accident causation by the NID, or whether a systems theory framework is required. A sample of injury and near miss reports (n = 228) were extracted from the NID and analysed. All contributing factors identified were classified according to Rasmussen's (1997) Risk Management Framework (RRMF), which was adapted to describe the “led outdoor activity system”. In total, 58 different contributing factor categories were identified across the 228 incidents. Factors were classified across all levels of the framework, which indicates that the NID categories are inadequate. The findings also demonstrate that RRMF is appropriate for classifying the contributing factors involved in less severe injuries and near misses that do not have in-depth investigations associated with them.

What would you like? Identifying the required characteristics of an industry-wide incident reporting and learning system for the led outdoor activity sector

The aim of this study was to identify the characteristics that led outdoor activity providers agree are necessary for the development of a new industry-wide incident reporting and learning system (UPLOADS). The study involved: 1) a literature review to identify a set of characteristics that are considered to be hallmarks of successful reporting and learning systems in other safety-critical domains; and (2) the presentation of these characteristics to 25 Australian led outdoor activity providers using a two round modified-Delphi technique to obtain consensus views on their relative importance in this domain. Thirteen out of 30 characteristics were endorsed as “essential” for developing an incident reporting and learning system for the led outdoor activity sector, and a further 13 were endorsed as “required”. “Essential” characteristics primarily related to operational or practical characteristics of the system, while “required” characteristics primarily related to system infrastructure, data quality and the basis for developing of countermeasures to address identified injury risks. The findings indicate that although led outdoor activity providers are primarily concerned that the demands of reporting do not adversely impact on their day to day operations, they also recognise that data collection methods and countermeasure development need to be of high quality. The paper concludes by highlighting some potential strategies for implementing the characteristics considered “essential” and “required”.

Safety-related improvisation in led outdoor activities: An exploratory investigation into its occurrence and influencing factors

IntroductionLed outdoor activities (LOA), defined here as instructed activities taking place in an outdoor setting that have an educational goal associated with them, can involve a degree of uncertainty and risk. Participating in LOA activities that involve an acceptable level of risk can be beneficial as they provide an opportunity for participants to engage with risk, to test their capabilities, and to learn from mistakes (Cline, 2007; Dickson, 2012). Despite LOA organisations' best efforts to keep levels of risk acceptable, the dynamic environment in which many LOAs take place means that LOA leaders and their participants can sometimes find themselves in situations that their organisation has not anticipated, and hence are outside their organisation's procedures or their own experiences or knowledge. These situations may have the potential to negatively impact the safety of the activity leaders and participants. Research from other domains has shown that one means of devising solutions to such unplanned for safety critical situations is through improvisation (e.g. Weick, 1993; Mendonca, 2007; Grotan, Storseth, Ro, & Skjerve, 2008). This study considers safety-related improvisation in LOAs.Improvisation is an ambiguous concept in relation to safety. Inappropriately devised or poorly executed improvisation has contributed to adverse outcomes for activity leaders and participants. Examples include the Mangatepopo Gorge incident in 2008, in which six students and their teacher were swept over a spill weir and drowned after following their LOA leader's improvised plan to exit the flooded Mangatepopo gorge in New Zealand (Brookes, Smith, & Corkill, 2009), and the Ptarmigan Peak incident in Alaska, in which two students died after the failure of the improvised roping and anchoring system devised by the activity leaders led to all four roped climbing groups becoming detached from the slope and falling into a boulder field (Williamson, Ratz & Miller, 1997). To the contrary, evidence from other safety critical domains such as firefighting and emergency response services (e.g. Klein, 1999, pp.19-20; Bigley & Roberts, 2001; Roux-Dufort and Vidiallet, 2003), and aviation (e.g. National Transportation Safety Board, 2010) indicates that appropriate, effective improvisation can save lives. This suggests that improvisation by LOA leaders and their organisations, if appropriate and effective, may also have the potential to impact positively on the safety of participants and leaders in the event that they find themselves in an unanticipated, safety critical situation. An improved understanding of improvisation in relation to LOAs may, therefore, provide new insights into safety for LOA organisations. As a first step in this line of inquiry, research is required to understand the nature of improvisation during LOAs.This article presents the findings from an exploratory study that was undertaken as part of a wider research program examining improvisation by LOA leaders. Specifically, a survey study was undertaken to provide broader evidence that improvisation takes place in safety critical situations within the LOA domain. The aims of this study were to identify the circumstances in which safety-related improvisation occurs, the forms in which it manifests, and to establish what factors influence safety-related improvisation by LOA leaders.What is improvisation?Improvisation, as it is referred to in this study, is an adaptive strategy used when faced with situations for which no procedures exist, or where circumstances prevent known procedures from being deployed. It is not considered as a replacement for well designed emergency procedures. Various definitions of improvisation exist in the literature. For example, it is defined as "creative and spontaneous behaviour of managing an unexpected event" (Magni, Proserpio, Hoegl, & Provera, 2009, p. 1045), and an unplanned response that takes place in a turbulent, rapidly changing environment (Chelariu, Johnston, & Young, 2002). …

Injury causation in the great outdoors: A systems analysis of led outdoor activity injury incidents

Despite calls for a systems approach to assessing and preventing injurious incidents within the led outdoor activity domain, applications of systems analysis frameworks to the analysis of incident data have been sparse. This article presents an analysis of 1014 led outdoor activity injury and near miss incidents whereby a systems-based risk management framework was used to classify the contributing factors involved across six levels of the led outdoor activity ‘system’. The analysis identified causal factors across all levels of the led outdoor activity system, demonstrating the framework's utility for accident analysis efforts in the led outdoor activity injury domain. In addition, issues associated with the current data collection framework that potentially limited the identification of contributing factors outside of the individuals, equipment, and environment involved were identified. In closing, the requirement for new and improved data systems to be underpinned by the systems philosophy and new models of led outdoor activity accident causation is discussed.