Lebanese Mountains Research Articles

Snowpack dynamics in the Lebanese mountains from quasi-dynamically downscaled ERA5 reanalysis updated by assimilating remotely sensed fractional snow-covered area

Abstract. The snowpack over the Mediterranean mountains constitutes a key water resource for the downstream populations. However, its dynamics have not been studied in detail yet in many areas, mostly because of the scarcity of snowpack observations. In this work, we present a characterization of the snowpack over the two mountain ranges of Lebanon. To obtain the necessary snowpack information, we have developed a 1 km regional-scale snow reanalysis (ICAR_assim) covering the period 2010–2017. ICAR_assim was developed by means of an ensemble-based data assimilation of Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) fractional snow-covered area (fSCA) through an energy and mass snow balance model, the Flexible Snow Model (FSM2), using the particle batch smoother (PBS). The meteorological forcing data were obtained by a regional atmospheric simulation from the Intermediate Complexity Atmospheric Research model (ICAR) nested inside a coarser regional simulation from the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF). The boundary and initial conditions of WRF were provided by the ERA5 atmospheric reanalysis. ICAR_assim showed very good agreement with MODIS gap-filled snow products, with a spatial correlation of R=0.98 in the snow probability (P(snow)) and a temporal correlation of R=0.88 on the day of peak snow water equivalent (SWE). Similarly, ICAR_assim has shown a correlation with the seasonal mean SWE of R=0.75 compared with in situ observations from automatic weather stations (AWSs). The results highlight the high temporal variability in the snowpack in the Lebanese mountain ranges, with the differences between Mount Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains that cannot only be explained by hypsography as the Anti-Lebanon Mountains are in the rain shadow of Mount Lebanon. The maximum fresh water stored in the snowpack is in the middle elevations, approximately between 2200 and 2500 m a.s.l. (above sea level). Thus, the resilience to further warming is low for the snow water resources of Lebanon due to the proximity of the snowpack to the zero isotherm.

Montivipera bornmuelleri Venom: Inhibitory Effect on Staphylococcus epidermidis and Escherichia coli F1F0-ATPases and Cytotoxicity on HCT116 Cancer Cell Lines

In this work, we pursued the biological characterization of the venom of Montivipera bornmuelleri, a viper from the Lebanese mountains. In relation to its antibacterial potential, the inhibitory effect of this venom on the F1F0-ATPase enzymes of Gram-positive Staphylocoocus epidermidis and Gram-negative Escherichia coli bacteria was examined. In order to determine the degree of cytotoxicity of the venom on the HCT116 human colon cancer cell lines, the biological MTT proliferation and cell viability test were implemented. After validation of the enzymatic F1F0-ATPase model by the spectrophotometric method, using quercetin as the reference ligand, results revealed that M. bornmuelleri venom is able to inhibit the activity of the enzyme of these two bacteria with a concentration of the order of 100–150 µg/mL. In addition, a venom concentration of 10 µg/mL was sufficient to kill the totality of HCT116 cell lines cultivated in vitro. These data show that M. bornmuelleri venom is a mixture of diverse molecules presenting activities of interest, and is a potential source to explore in order to discover new drug candidates.

Antioxidant and Antisteatotic Activities of a New Fucoidan Extracted from Ferula hermonis Roots Harvested on Lebanese Mountains.

Fucoidan is a fucose-rich sulfated polysaccharide with attractive therapeutic potential due to a variety of biological activities, including antioxidant action. Fucoidan is typically found in the cell wall of marine brown algae, but extra-algal sources have also been discovered. In the present work, for the first time we extracted a water soluble fucoidan fraction from the roots of the terrestrial shrub Ferula hermonis. This fucoidan fraction was termed FUFe, and contained fucose, glucose, sulfate, smaller amounts of monosaccharides such as galactose and mannose, and a minor quantity of proteins. FUFe structural features were investigated by FTIR, 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectroscopy. The antioxidant property of FUFe was measured by DPPH, ABTS and FRAP assays, which revealed a high radical scavenging capacity that was confirmed in in vitro cellular models. In hepatic and endothelial cells, 50 μg/mL FUFe could reduce ROS production induced by intracellular lipid accumulation. Moreover, in hepatic cells FUFe exhibited a significant antisteatotic action, being able to reduce intracellular triglyceride content and to regulate the expression of key genes of hepatic lipid metabolism. Altogether, our results candidate FUFe as a possible bioactive compound against fatty liver disease and related vascular damage.

Inland Water Quality Study of Mount Lebanon Range in the Region of Middle East

Lebanon is a country with several rivers and renewable water resources compared to other neighboring countries. Lebanon has several major rivers that are originating from mount Lebanon. Rivers in-fact entering to the Mediterranean Sea by passing about 20-30 km from their sources at mount Lebanon through the coastal zones (west of Lebanon). Sannine Aquifer at mountain district at an altitude of 1,500 m, is the major inland fresh water, groundwater, source for the coastal area and servicing many lands and cities. In this research, the quality of inland water, fresh-water resources of Mount Lebanon range in the Middle East region, were studied. Water samples were collected from different places among Lebanese mountains. The collected samples were analyzed to measure the average concentration of selected Physico-chemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total alkalinity, total hardness, magnesium, etc. Many other inland water sources (wells) are also existing, however, many of them are saline and are not suitable for direct domestic use or even for irrigation. The study approach water quality assessment and level of pollution and potential impact to seawater of Mediterranean basin since there is a direct connection with the Seawater at each range. The average of electrical conductivity value of fresh water found to be slightly high, TDS value were moderately high while phosphate recorded at high level. Other data assessment show that the quality of inland water has to be monitored since it is deteriorating due to uncontrolled usage.

Autosomal genetics and Y-chromosome haplogroup L1b-M317 reveal Mount Lebanon Maronites as a persistently non-emigrating population.

Currently, there are 18 different religious communities living in Lebanon. While evolving primarily within Lebanon, these communities show a level of local isolation as demonstrated previously from their Y-haplogroup distributions. In order to trace the origins and migratory patterns that may have led to the genetic isolation and autosomal clustering in some of these communities we analyzed Y-chromosome STR and SNP sample data from 6327 individuals, in addition to whole genome autosomal sample data from 609 individuals, from Mount Lebanon and other surrounding communities. We observed Y chromosome L1b Levantine STR branching that occurred around 5000 years ago. Autosomal DNA analyses suggest that the North Lebanese Mountain Maronite community possesses an ancestral Fertile Crescent genetic component distinct from other populations in the region. We suggest that the Levantine L1b group split from the Caucasus ancestral group around 7300 years ago and migrated to the Levant. This event was distinct from the earlier expansions from the Caucasus region that contributed to the wider Levantine populations. Differential cultural adaption by populations from the North Lebanese Mountains are clearly aligned with the L1b haplotype STR haplogroup clusters, indicating pre-existing and persistent cultural barriers marked by the transmission of L1b lineages. Our findings highlight the value of uniparental haplogroups and STR haplotype data for elucidating biosocial events among these populations.

Geomorphometry methods for the classifications and analysis of the isolated hills in Lebanon

Geomorphometry methods for mountain ordering and classifications allow the recognizable proof of precise connections between different morphological parameters. The geomorphometric analysis incorporates quantitative estimation and examination of geography, it explores the impact of help, on landform evolution. Lebanese Mountains are classified based on the hydrological method of Strahlers stream order, closed-loop concentric contour lines define the first-order mountain. Higher-order mountains are defined by a set of closed contour lines containing lower-order mountains and have only one closed contour line for each elevation. This paper generates and classify mountains orders by their circularity forms and test the magnitude of isolated hills dissection, to understand their spatial location and the reason there are. These diverse lithologies and tectonic activities have contributed to developing many types of natural isolated hills of different forms such as circular, oval elongated, and complex shapes. The dissection of these forms of different mountain orders is analyzed by studying the variations in dissection index with mountains order and tested with the geological map of Lebanon. The result shows that the High dissection index value goes to the first and second mountains orders due to high erosion expressed by the high terrain relative relief, and the isolated hills were caused by the orogenic phase which began in the Upper Jurassic during the rise of the two mountainous chains Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. These isolated hills are mainly part of the Cenomanian of the Cretaceous and the Upper Jurassic formed by the erosion generated from the stream density during this period.
 Keywords: Mountains order, dissection index, circularity index

Al-Ansab and the Dead Sea: Mid-MIS 3 archaeology and environment of the early Ahmarian population of the Levantine corridor.

Our field data from the Upper Palaeolithic site of Al-Ansab 1 (Jordan) and from a pollen sequence in the Dead Sea elucidate the role that changing Steppe landscapes played in facilitating anatomically modern human populations to enter a major expansion and consolidation phase, known as the „Early Ahmarian“, several millennia subsequent to their initial Marine Isotope Stage 4/3 migration from Africa, into the Middle East. The Early Ahmarian techno-cultural unit covers a time range between 45 ka–37 ka BP. With so far more than 50 sites found, the Early Ahmarian is the first fully Upper Palaeolithic techno-cultural unit exclusively and undisputedly related to anatomically modern human populations. In order to better understand the potentially attractive features of the Early Ahmarian environmental context that supported its persistence for over 8,000 years, we carried out a decennial research program in Jordan and in the Dead Sea. This included (1) a geoscientific and archaeological survey program in the Wadi Sabra (Jordan) with a particular focus on excavations at the Early Ahmarian site of Al-Ansab 1 alongside the detailed analysis of Quaternary sediments from the same area and (2) palaeobotanical research based on Quaternary lake deposits from the Dead Sea. Our pollen data from the Dead Sea indicate slow, low frequency vegetational variation with expanding Artemisia steppe, from 60 to 20 ka BP (MIS 3–2). Here, we see a reciprocal assimilation of southern and northern Levantine vegetation zones thereby enhancing a long-lasting south-to-north steppe corridor. The same integration process accelerated about 40 ka ago, when forested areas retreated in the Lebanese Mountains. The process then extended to encompass an area from Southern Lebanon to the Sinai Peninsula. We argue that, at the same time, the carriers of the Early Ahmarian techno-cultural unit extended their habitat from their original Mediterranean biome (in the North) to the Saharo-Arabian biome (to the South). Our excavation of Al-Ansab 1, a campsite at the eastern margins of the Early Ahmarian settlement area, indicates far reaching annual movements of small, highly mobile hunter-gatherer groups. We assume a low degree of settlement complexity, still allowing for habitat extension of the Early Ahmarian into the margins of the Levantine corridor. Due to our radiometric dates, our combined archaeological and environmental record sheds light on an evolved phase of the Early Ahmarian, around 38 ka ago, rather than the starting phase of this techno-cultural unit. Possible application of our model to the starting phase of the Early Ahmarian remains an aspect of future research.

Evolution of almond genetic diversity and farmer practices in Lebanon: impacts of the diffusion of a graft-propagated cultivar in a traditional system based on seed-propagation

BackgroundUnder cultivation, many outcrossing fruit tree species have switched from sexual reproduction to vegetative propagation. Traditional production systems have persisted, where cultivar propagation is based on a mixed reproductive system. For millenia, almond, Prunus dulcis, has been propagated by seeds. Almond grafting remained of little importance until recently. In Lebanon, both sexual and clonal reproductions are used for almond propagation. We used 15 microsatellite markers to investigate the effect of introducing graft-propagated cultivars and associated practices, on the structure of the genetic diversity among and within the two main Lebanese cultivars.ResultsAs expected, the sexually propagated cultivar Khachabi exhibited more genotypic and genetic diversity than the vegetatively propagated cultivar Halwani. It also exhibited lower differentiation among populations. The distribution of clones showed that propagation modes were not exclusive: farmers have introduced clonal propagation in the seed-propagated cultivar while they have maintained a diversity of genotypes within populations that were mostly graft-propagated. These practices are also important to avoid mate limitations that hamper fruit production in a self-incompatible species.‘Khachabi’ is structured into two gene pools separated by the Lebanese mountains. As to ‘Halwani’, two different gene pools were introduced. The most ancient one shares the same geographic range as ‘Khachabi’; longtime coexistence and sexual reproduction have resulted in admixture with ‘Khachabi’. In contrast, the more recent introduction of the second gene pool in the Bekaa region followed an evolution towards more extensive clonal propagation of ‘Halwani’ limiting hybridizations. Furthermore, some pairs of geographically distant ‘Halwani’ orchards, exhibited low genetic distances, suggesting that a network of exchanges between farmers was effective on a large scale and/or that farmers brought clonal plant material from a common source.ConclusionsAlmond diversification in Lebanon is clearly related to the evolution of propagation practices adapted to self-incompatible cultivars. The comparison between both cultivars demonstrated the genetic effects of the introduction of a new cultivar and the associated grafting propagation practices. Our study provided information to develop a strategy for in situ conservation of cultivars and to limit gene flow from introduced material to ancient orchards.

Lethal, Hemorrhagic, and Necrotic Effects ofMontivipera bornmuelleriVenom

Montivipera bornmuelleri is an endangered viper that has been described as endemic to the Lebanese mountains. The lethal dose 50% (LD50) of M. bornmuelleri venom has been determined by performing intravenous, intraperitoneal (IP), and subcutaneous injections. However, to date, intramuscular injection has not been performed to determine LD50, nor have the minimum hemorrhagic (MHD) or the minimum necrotic doses (MND) been evaluated. Thus, this study was conducted to complete the characterization of the M. bornmuelleri venom. Our results showed that intramuscularly injected LD50 is around 5.39 mg/kg, and IP LD50 is around 1.93 mg/kg. After intradermal injection, our findings showed significant necrotic and medium hemorrhagic activities, and MHD was around 250 µg/kg. By comparing with other local venomous snakes, these results indicate that the lethality of M. bornmuelleri venom is similar to that of Daboia palaestinae venom (IP LD50=1.9 mg/kg) and is higher than that of Macrovipera lebetina venom (IP LD50=7.58 mg/kg) and that the hemorrhagic activity of M. bornmuelleri venom is lower than that of the Macrovipera lebetina (MHD=200 µg/kg). On the other hand, necrotic activity was detected at low doses of injected venom: MND was estimated at 20 µg/kg. Altogether, our findings could extend the scope of characterization of M. bornmuelleri venom and provide useful data for further in vivo studies.

Molecular Verification of Two Potent Bacteria Isolated from Darfiyeh Cheese: <i>Lactococcus lactis</i> Subsp. <i>Lactis</i> and <i>Lactobacillus plantarum</i>

Raw goat milk cheeses are known for their natural microflora linked to many biodiversity factors such as the use of raw milk. That microflora serves probiotic attribution conferring a beneficial health impact on the consumer. Darfiyeh is an artisanal raw goat milk cheese manufactured traditionally in Northern Lebanese Mountains. To emphasize its clinical significance in both digestive and immune system, and to provide health remunerations to the consumer, the cheese microbiota will be investigated. To serve that purpose, the presence of the two potent probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB): Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and Lactobacillus plantarum will be investigated. For bacterial identification, selection and isolation: culture-dependent techniques that imply the use of laboratory media will be implemented, and culture independent techniques: Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) will be applied for further validation. Both bacteria were further verified as Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and Lactobacillus plantarum by implementing specie-specific primers for the qualitative PCR.

Phylogenetic diversity and genome sizes of Astragalus (Fabaceae) in the Lebanon biogeographical crossroad

The Lebanese mountain range is an important zone of plant species richness and endemism where the genus Astragalus constitutes a principal component of plant biodiversity. Most of endemic Astragalus taxa, living in mountains and arid zones of Mounts Lebanon and anti-Lebanon, are characterized by a cushion, spiny vegetative form, named “tragacanthic”, which is a remarkable example of vegetative convergence evolution. Because of determination difficulties, taxonomic uncertainties, and discrepancy in the number of taxa listed according to authors, new data are hardly needed to improve systematics of Astragalus and to investigate the role of the Lebanese mountain range as refugia of biodiversity. Before this study only two values on the genome size of Astragalus were reported in the literature and no previous molecular studies had been carried out on Astragalus genus in Lebanon. We examined the utility of rDNA ITS molecular markers to distinguish Astragalus species of Lebanese mountain range and the variation range of their genome size. The main results revealed a striking diversity in Lebanese Astragalus species with the emphasis of a huge variation of genome sizes, an important inter-specific chromosome polymorphism and the existence of a high phylogenetic diversity. The strict endemic species of the Lebanese mountains are positioned throughout the phylogeny. These results confirm that the Lebanon and anti-Lebanon mounts constitute a third diversity center for Astragalus and that high altitude areas are important refugia of plant biodiversity despite centuries of exploitation by humans.

Changes in proteolysis and volatile fraction during ripening of Darfiyeh, a Lebanese artisanal raw goat's milk cheese

Abstract In order to contribute for the preservation of the Lebanese dairy heritage, the aim of this study was to characterize Darfiyeh cheese, a traditional variety made from raw goats’ milk and ripened in goat's skin. This research effort focused on following the changes in the physicochemical parameters of Darfiyeh throughout its ripening, with specific reference to the cheese-making procedure and ripening conditions. Three independent batches of Darfiyeh production, were processed at small scale cheese farming in Northern Lebanese mountains and were analysed after 20, 40 and 60 days of ripening. Compositional parameters such as moisture, fat in dry matter and chloride content were performed. Proteolysis was followed by determining soluble nitrogen at pH 4.6 and in 12% trichloroacetic acid. The results showed that Darfiyeh is a semi-hard goat cheese that undergoes a moderate proteolysis during ripening. Acidity index and fatty acid (FA) profile were also performed. The average acidity index of fat values increases continuously up to 60 days of ripening. The FA profile was similar to that reported for other goat cheeses in the literature. Short- and long-chain FAs groups were the variables that most contributed to sample differentiation, unexpectedly through their un-uniform behaviour. Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was applied to study the volatile compounds in Darfiyeh. 16 volatile compounds (2 aldehydes, 8 alcohols, and 6 ketones) were identified. Our findings may be of possible concern for the dairy industry in imitating the peculiarities of artisanal cheeses made from raw milk.

Women of the Lebanese mountains: A fight for edification

Synopsis In 1980, a small group of women in the Shouf Mountain village of Baakleen in Lebanon came together under the banner “Women's Edification Assembly” (WEA). Their aim was to provide a sense of security and stability to their families in spite of the unstable and combustive political situation of their country in the throes of civil war at the time. WEA put together activities such as fairs, theatrical performances, poetry evenings, and counseling seminars for women. They also founded a school of music and art, a cultural club, and a scout's club. Their purpose was to provide a stability which patriarchal institutions that dominated the country were not providing, and to build women's solidarity that would enable them to cope with their ordeal. Their mouthpiece was the magazine they entitled Abeer which not only listed their activities, but gave a forum to women to vent their thoughts and to reflect upon the political situation of their country. Through the analysis of the magazine, and through interviews conducted with its editor, Malika Hamadeh, this study demonstrates women's self-declared roles towards their community as its mothers, sisters, and daughters. Additional interviews conducted with those who were children partaking in WEA's activities at the time will show how the organization helped them to cope with war and to live, as much as possible, a “normal” childhood when not residing in bomb shelters. These experiences had an impact on how these individuals assume parenting today in a calmer, yet still volatile environment in Lebanon.

Estimation de L'équivalent en Eau du Couvert Nival en Montagne Libanaise à Partir des Images RADARSAT-1/Estimation of Water Equivalent of the Snow Cover in Lebanese Mountains by Means of RADARSAT-1 Images

The assessment of the spatial and temporal distribution of water resources in Mediterranean region is crucial for the better management of available resources. In Lebanon in particular, the snow is a crucial parameter for water supply. However, few research works were performed until now to study this potential resource because of difficulties inherent to the measurement of the water volume stored by snow. Remote sensing, and more specifically radar imaging, is the favourite tool for investigating the now water equivalent. This study aims to assess the potential of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging for estimating the snow water equivalent in relation with eight experimental sites distributed over the high plateaus of the Lebanese mountains. With this purpose, an algorithm was tested, which links the backscattering coefficient to physical parameters of the snow and underlying soil, and which allows to assess the water equivalent from the backscattering ratios of a winter scene and a reference scene taken during a period with no snow. To this end, four RADARSAT images were acquired during winter 2001, concurrently to field observations. The model was developed in Quebec for regions with low relief, whereas relief has a decisive influence on the radar signal and on the geometry of images, in a context of high mountains. Consequently, radiometric and geometric corrections were compulsory in order to reduce distortions dues to topographical effects. The preliminary results corroborate the existence of a series of limitations to the application of the algorithm to the particular conditions of the Lebanese snow cover: heterogeneity, accelerated metamorphism and high content of liquid water.

Estimation de L'e?quivalent en Eau du Couvert Nival en Montagne Libanaise a? Partir des Images RADARSAT-1/Estimation of Water Equivalent of the Snow Cover in Lebanese Mountains by Means of RADARSAT-1 Images

Abstract The assessment of the spatial and temporal distribution of water resources in Mediterranean region is crucial for the better management of available resources. In Lebanon in particular, the snow is a crucial parameter for water supply. However, few research works were performed until now to study this potential resource because of difficulties inherent to the measurement of the water volume stored by snow. Remote sensing, and more specifically radar imaging, is the favourite tool for investigating the now water equivalent. This study aims to assess the potential of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging for estimating the snow water equivalent in relation with eight experimental sites distributed over the high plateaus of the Lebanese mountains. With this purpose, an algorithm was tested, which links the backscattering coefficient to physical parameters of the snow and underlying soil, and which allows to assess the water equivalent from the backscattering ratios of a winter scene and a reference scene taken during a period with no snow. To this end, four RADARSAT images were acquired during winter 2001, concurrently to field observations. The model was developed in Quebec for regions with low relief, whereas relief has a decisive influence on the radar signal and on the geometry of images, in a context of high mountains. Consequently, radiometric and geometric corrections were compulsory in order to reduce distortions dues to topographical effects. The preliminary results corroborate the existence of a series of limitations to the application of the algorithm to the particular conditions of the Lebanese snow cover: heterogeneity, accelerated metamorphism and high content of liquid water.

レバノン山脈の気候地形

Lebanese Mountains running along the eastern coast of Mediterranean Sea are about 3000 m high and consist of jurasic and cretaceous limestones. Several geomorphological phenomena derived from lithology and climatic conditions develop in these mountains.Several undulated erosional surfaces which are strikingly contrast of deep valleys with high cliffs are well reserved. The limestone composing the Mountains is weak enough to be cut into deeply by water erosion but it resists to mechanical weathering, so the erosion is restricted only along the streams and the slopes and erosional surfaces are apt to be reserved.At the head of the streams there are great cirque-like landforms, represented with “Cirque de Cedres” and have been regarded as glacial cirques by several authors. These landforms, however, are also ones derived from lithology and it is impossible to think them glacial cirques. These landforms seem to have been created by the landslides occured frequently under the different climatic conditions in the past.Small hollows, distributing generally on the erosional surfaces above 2000 m high, have been often considered as nivation hollows. But these hollows seem to be karst landforms and their distribution is controlled with the underground water system. Therefore it is not correct to relate these hollows with firns.Patterned grounds develop widely on the gentle slopes in the alpine zone of Lebanese Mts. For the formation of these landforms intensive destruction of bedrocks and productions of gravels and small particles are needed at first. The grain size composition under the present climate is favourable to the formation of patterned grounds.In this Mountain tree limit altitude is estimated to about 2500 m high, though it is not clear at the present time. Astragalus and perrenial herbs (Vicia canescene) distribute instead of trees. Judging from this, the lower periglacial limit is estimated to have been at 2600-2700 m high. On the area above this lime debris production and movement were vivid, and the area below this line soil formation was predominant and patterned grounds occur only as extrazonal phenomena here.Periglacial deposits belong Riss and Würm ice ages are observed around Qornet es Saouda and other places. These old deposits are consolidated. Riss deposits are coarser than Wurm deposits. And both deposits are coarser than the deposits on the present slopes.