Learning In Invertebrates Research Articles

Amphipods (Gammarus pseudolimnaeus) do not demonstrate a left-right preference in a 3-D printed aquatic T-maze

Crustaceans are increasingly used as research subjects in experiments investigating learning in invertebrates. While many of these species may be useful models it is essential to document the presence or absence of behavioral laterality, especially considering the long-held belief that functional lateralization was unique to humans or other vertebrate species. Neglecting this fundamental step weakens the applicability of results and may unnecessarily complicate experimental design. Amphipods (Gammarus pseudolimnaeus) may be a useful invertebrate for studying simple discriminations or escape behavior, but research on their potential behavioral laterality is absent. The current study investigated whether amphipods demonstrate a left-right bias when navigating an aquatic T-maze by placing them in the maze and recording their choices across multiple trials. Our results suggested that amphipods do not show a strong left-right bias during initial navigation of an aquatic T-maze. These findings may encourage other researchers to test invertebrates for behavioral laterality, utilize amphipods in studies of simple forms of learning, and potentially simplify future experimental design.

Development of android media in invertebrate learning

The development of android media for invertebrate material in biology lessons has not been carried out and needs to be optimized. The research aims to develop android media for invertebrate learning. This type of research is research and development using the Plomp and Nieveen development model, which is limited to the prototyping phase, and formative evaluation based on Tessmer which consists of self-evaluation, expert opinion, individual testing, small group testing, and field testing. The research subjects consisted of 3 experts and 30 students who had programmed the Invertebrates course for individual tests, small group tests, and field tests. The research instruments include validation sheets and essay-based tests. The acquired data was subjected to descriptive analysis. The validation of Android media shows that the media is suitable for use with an average of 72, practicality testing shows the ease of the learning process with an average of 94, effectiveness testing before using Android media is 32 and after using Android media is 87. The conclusion is that the Android media developed is valid, practical, and effective and can be used for the learning process. Furthermore, tests can be carried out on a wider scale to obtain more homogeneous data.

Development of Documentary Video Learning Media to Improve Student Learning Outcomes in Invertebrate Materials

Invertebrate learning should present real objects of observation in the classroom or laboratory. The average learning outcomes of class X students of Senior high school (SMA MIPA) in the 2021/2022 academic year for Invertebrates material is 68 and only 38% achieve KKM or minimum completeness criteria is 70. The value of attitudes and skills of students is also not optimal. The purpose of this study was to analyze the characteristics, validity, practicality, and effectiveness of documentary video learning media on invertebrate material at SMA Negeri 1 Pulokulon, Grobogan Regency. This research is research and development (R&D). Documentary videos are validated by experts and practitioners. Practicality is determined by the responses of students and teachers. The effectiveness of video documentaries was tested with the Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design. Data on attitudes and skills of students were observed by providing an assessment with a rating scale and then an independent t test was carried out. Classical completeness was analyzed by descriptive percentage. the independent t test was used to test whether there was a difference in the posttest mean between the experimental group and the control class. The results showed that the Invertebrates video material was prepared by considering format, content, language, and media engineering aspects, so that it spurred students in discovery learning activities, namely: identifying problems, observing, collecting data, compiling data, communicating, and concluding. The learning device in the form of documentary video learning media on invertebrate material is declared valid in the very good category. Documentary video learning media on Invertebrates material are stated to be practical. with very positive criteria. Documentary videos on Invertebrates are effective on cognitive learning outcomes, attitudes, and process skills.

Insulin/IGF signaling regulates presynaptic glutamate release in aversive olfactory learning.

Insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) receptor signaling (IIS) supports context-dependent learning in vertebrates and invertebrates. Here, we identify cell-specific mechanisms of IIS that integrate sensory information with food context to drive synaptic plasticity and learning. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, pairing food deprivation with an odor such as butanone suppresses attraction to that odor. We find that aversive olfactory learning requires the insulin receptor substrate (IRS) protein IST-1 and atypical signaling through the insulin/IGF-1 receptor DAF-2. Cell-specific knockout and rescue demonstrate that DAF-2 acts in the AWCON sensory neuron, which detects butanone, and that learning preferentially depends upon the axonally localized DAF-2c isoform. Acute food deprivation increases DAF-2 levels in AWCON post-transcriptionally through an insulin- and insulin receptor substrate-1 (ist-1)-dependent process. Aversive learning alters the synaptic output of AWCON by suppressing odor-regulated glutamate release in wild-type animals, but not in ist-1 mutants, suggesting that axonal insulin signaling regulates synaptic transmission to support aversive memory.

Where association ends. A review of associative learning in invertebrates, plants and protista, and a reflection on its limits.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, the Minimal Cognition approach has emerged vigorously, focusing on the study of the adaptive behavior of the simplest organisms, including bacteria, assuming that they are sentient and information-processing entities. Although Minimal Cognition has occasionally used Pavlovian methods to try to demonstrate Associative Learning, neither the Psychology of Learning nor the Comparative Psychology traditions are prominent in the movement. However, the Psychology of Learning approach, with its highly sophisticated experimental designs, has done a great deal of research on Associative Learning in animals and carried out several studies on plants and unicellular organisms. The present work offers a comprehensive review of these experimental results, among invertebrates, plants and unicellular organisms (paramecia and the amoeba Physarum policephalum) showing that, while there are increasing instances of Associative Learning in many invertebrate phyla (and also many phyla with no data) there is no adequate evidence of it in unicellular protists (despite more than a century of experiments with paramecia and amoeba) or in plants (despite recent results that so claim). We then consider the alternative offered by Minimal Cognition and suggest some complementary ideas, from a Comparative Developmental Psychology approach, which we call "Minimal Development." (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Supporting Tanzanian Students’ Academic Language Proficiency by Inquiry-based learning of Invertebrate Systematic

The purpose of this study was to assess how the Inquiry Based Learning approach supports the development of students’ academic language proficiency in invertebrate systematic. The study was framed by Halliday’s sociolinguistic approach to learning. A total of 50 classroom observation sessions at 10 schools were conducted: 10 before and 40 after the intervention. Twenty purposively selected teachers and 200 randomly selected Form 4 students participated in this study. Data were collected using a mixed-method research approach through a lesson observation checklist and evaluation sheet. Further, qualitative data were analysed thematically, and themes were transcribed and coded. Quantitative data were analysed using frequencies and percentages. Key findings revealed a progressive positive change in teaching and learning invertebrates using the 5Es (Engage/Excite, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate) instructional model. Students’ writing skills were highly improved, and the phases which contributed to the improvement included, in particular, Explore and Explain. However, reading was rarely observed in any phases of the 5Es cycle. The study recommends the use of the inquiry-based learning approach in teaching and learning of invertebrate systematic to improve students’ academic language proficiency at secondary school level.

Neuromodulatory pathways in learning and memory: Lessons from invertebrates

In an ever-changing environment, animals have to continuously adapt their behaviour. The ability to learn from experience is crucial for animals to increase their chances of survival. It is therefore not surprising that learning and memory evolved early in evolution and are mediated by conserved molecular mechanisms. A broad range of neuromodulators, in particular monoamines and neuropeptides, have been found to influence learning and memory, although our knowledge on their modulatory functions in learning circuits remains fragmentary. Many neuromodulatory systems are evolutionarily ancient and well-conserved between vertebrates and invertebrates. Here, we highlight general principles and mechanistic insights concerning the actions of monoamines and neuropeptides in learning circuits that have emerged from invertebrate studies. Diverse neuromodulators have been shown to influence learning and memory in invertebrates, which can have divergent or convergent actions at different spatiotemporal scales. In addition, neuromodulators can regulate learning dependent on internal and external states, such as food and social context. The strong conservation of neuromodulatory systems, the extensive toolkit and the compact learning circuits in invertebrate models make these powerful systems to further deepen our understanding of neuromodulatory pathways involved in learning and memory.

Short- and long-term habituation of photonegative and exploratory responses in the flatworm planaria (Dugesia).

Two experiments address the habituation of photonegative and exploratory responses in the flatworm planaria (Dugesia). Planarians possess a well-documented photonegative response; Experiment 1 showed that repeated exposures to a bright light source with short inter trial intervals (ITIs) within 1 experimental session gradually weakens the unconditioned photonegative response. In addition, it was found that presentation of an unexpected arousal-increasing stimulus (dropped water or a shock) temporarily re-establishes the photonegative response. Experiment 2 addressed the development of long-term habituation; we recorded the locomotor activity of the animals exposed to an inescapable bright light. Experiments 2A and 2B showed that planarians develop long-term habituation but only when they were trained in relatively novel contexts; when they were trained in familiar contexts (in surfaces similar to the ones in the home) the development of habituation was severely impaired. The results are discussed by reference to the theory of short- and long-term habituation put forward by Allan R. Wagner (Wagner, 1976), highlighting the impact that this theory has had in the research of invertebrate learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Classical conditioning in earthworms employing an odorous conditioned stimulus

The study of associative learning in invertebrates has become an essential tool for exploring their cognitive abilities and for studying the biological bases of learning and memory. In this experiment with earthworms, we paired a rose odour conditioned stimulus (CS) with a bright light unconditioned stimulus (US). After these pairings, the head retraction response — which is initially elicited by the bright light — is eventually evoked by the rose odour. This is the first demonstration of classical conditioning of an odour in earthworms (vibrations are usually employed as CSs), using a procedure that enables us to rule out an explanation in terms of pseudoconditioning.

The Effects of Roundup and its Chemical Constituents on Learning and Long-Term Memory Consolidation in Lymnaea palustris

Environmental contamination from herbicide use is a prevalent problem. Roundup is a widely used herbicide that consists of two active ingredients: Glyphosate and Diquat Dibromide (DD). Previous work has shown that these compounds have negative impacts on development, fecundity, and other processes. We analyzed the effects of chronic exposure to Roundup, Glyphosate, and DD on learning and memory in the pond snail, Lymnaea palustris. L. palustris was treated with Roundup, Glyphosate, or DD for 1-2 weeks. Snails were operantly conditioned according to standard procedures. The results indicated that at concentrations of Roundup and DD legally allowed in human drinking water for a 1-week treatment, learning was not inhibited; however, memory formation was impaired. At the same concentration for 2 weeks, or at a 5-fold higher concentration for 1- and 2-week treatments, both learning and memory are significantly impaired. A 1-week treatment with Glyphosate impairs memory but not learning. Western Blot analysis was conducted to detect changes in Protein Kinase C (PKC) abundance, which has been shown to be linked to learning and memory. Previous work in our laboratory has shown a positive correlation between the abundance of PKC and memory consolidation in control snails; this increase is abolished upon exposure to Roundup or its constituents. Our findings suggest that Roundup and its constituents have damaging effects on learning and memory in invertebrates. Similar effects may occur in vertebrates because of the high level of conservation of learning and memory processes across species.

An Inconvenient Truth: Some Neglected Issues in Invertebrate Learning.

The burgeoning field of invertebrate behavior is moving into what was the realm of human psychology concepts. This invites comparative studies not only between invertebrate and vertebrate species but also among the diverse taxa within the invertebrates, diverse even when considering only the insects. In order to make lasting progress two issues must be addressed. The first is inconsistent use of fundamental terms defining learning. The second is a focus on similarities, giving little attention to dissimilarities. In addition, much work is needed on whether behavioral similarities are grounded in the same neuronal architecture when considering disparate phyla. These concerns identify are "inconvenient truths" that weaken comparative behavioral analysis.

Memory of direction of locomotion in sea urchins: effects of nerves on direction and activity of tube feet

Memory and learning in invertebrates with decentralized nervous systems is poorly understood and sea urchins are no exception. Following up on previous studies of locomotory direction in sea urchins, the regular sea urchin, Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus was used to examine whether they have directionality and ‘memory’ of direction in locomotion. Experiments were conducted in 2011–2013 on urchins collected from the subtidal rocky area off the Aburatsubo coast, Kanagawa, Japan. The sea urchins locomoted mainly with their tube feet. Individuals retained their directional locomotion in two successive trials separated by a resting period. This implies memory of the original direction and is termed “directional memory”. This memory was retained when the resting period was 5 min but disappeared when the period was extended to 10 min. Such directional memory was also observed in cutaway preparations in which the aboral one-third of the test was removed along with the viscera. The radial nerves (RNs) were severed in cutaway preparations to study their roles in memory and activities of the tube feet. The speed of locomotion was proportional to the total length of the RNs. When all RNs were separated from the nerve ring, the preparation continued to attach firmly to the substrate. When all RNs but one were cut at the midpoint, preparations locomoted keeping the ambulacrum with the uncut, longest RN forward. When all RNs were cut at the midpoint, directional memory was observed without the interference of the longest RN. A model in which each ambulacrum assumes one of four modes (leading, trailing, attached, or retracted) with its tube feet being controlled and coordinated by the RN, and where mode switching is caused by the mechanical pull of other ambulacra and or via the RN–ring system accounts for these findings.

Tyraminergic modulation of agonistic outcomes in crayfish.

Octopamine, a biogenic amine, modulates various behaviors, ranging from locomotion and aggression to learning and memory in invertebrates. Several studies recently demonstrated that tyramine, the biological precursor of octopamine, also affects behaviors independent of octopamine. Here we investigated the involvement of tyramine in agonistic interaction of the male crayfish Procambarus clarkii. When male crayfish fight, larger animals (3-7% difference in body length) are more likely to win. By contrast, direct injection of tyramine or octopamine counteracted the physical advantage of larger animals. Tyramine or octopamine-injected naive large animals were mostly beaten by untreated smaller naive animals. This pharmacological effect was similar to the loser effect in which subordinate larger animals are frequently beaten by smaller animals. Furthermore, loser effects were partly eliminated by either injection of epinastine, an octopamine blocker, or yohimbine, a tyramine blocker, and significantly diminished by injection of a mixture of both blockers. We also observed that tyramine levels in the subesophageal ganglion were remarkably increased in subordinate crayfish after losing a fight. These results suggest that tyramine modulates aggressive levels of crayfish and contributes to the loser effect in parallel with octopamine.

Development of Invertebrata Identification Student Worksheet for High School Students

Invertebrate learning process at SMA N 1 Rembang is dominated by one way learning where the learning process focus on the students in the class, so that it hasn’t made use of the enviroment around them and it hasn’t made the experiment because of the limitation of the media learning.. Because of it, the development of students worksheet which can guide students to do outdoor investigation is needed. The purpose of this study is to determine the feasibility and effectiveness of Invertebrate Identification Students Worksheet for X grade students of Senior High School. The method of this research was Research and Development (R & D) with product of Invertebrate Identification Students Worksheet for High School. Data collection of Students Worksheet for Coastal Invertebrate Identification through 4 stages, including preliminary study, planning, development, and LKS testing. It was found that Student Worksheet (LKS) in Invertebrate Identification is considered effective in supporting outdoor experiment with various assessment among others, quiding students to identify and classify coastal invertebrate.

Octopaminergic system in the central nervous system of the terrestrial slug Limax.

The terrestrial slug Limax can learn to avoid the odor of some food (e.g., carrot juice) by the simultaneous presentation of an aversive stimulus (e.g., bitterness of quinidine). This type of associative memory critically depends on the higher olfactory center, the procerebrum in the central nervous system. The modulation of the local field potential (LFP) oscillation recorded on the procerebrum has been thought to reflect the information processing of the odor that elicits the behavioral change, such as avoidance of the aversively learned odor or approaching an attractive food's odor. Here we focused on octopamine, an important neuromodulator involved in learning and memory in invertebrates, and considered to be the invertebrate equivalent of noradrenaline. We identified a few octopaminergic neurons in the subesophageal and buccal ganglia, and a larger number near the procerebrum in the cerebral ganglia, using immunohistochmical staining and in situ hybridization of tyramine β-hydroxylase, an octopamine-synthesizing enzyme. Application of octopamine reduced the frequency of LFP oscillation in a dose-dependent manner, and this effect was inhibited by preincubation with phentolamine. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed the presence of octopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline in the central nervous system. Unexpectedly, noradrenaline and adrenaline both accelerated the LFP oscillation, in contrast to octopamine. Our results suggest that octopamine and noradrenaline have distinct functions in olfactory information processing, in spite of their structural similarity. J. Comp. Neurol. 524:3849-3864, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Associative learning in invertebrates.

This work reviews research on neural mechanisms of two types of associative learning in the marine mollusk Aplysia, classical conditioning of the gill- and siphon-withdrawal reflex and operant conditioning of feeding behavior. Basic classical conditioning is caused in part by activity-dependent facilitation at sensory neuron-motor neuron (SN-MN) synapses and involves a hybrid combination of activity-dependent presynaptic facilitation and Hebbian potentiation, which are coordinated by trans-synaptic signaling. Classical conditioning also shows several higher-order features, which might be explained by the known circuit connections in Aplysia. Operant conditioning is caused in part by a different type of mechanism, an intrinsic increase in excitability of an identified neuron in the central pattern generator (CPG) for feeding. However, for both classical and operant conditioning, adenylyl cyclase is a molecular site of convergence of the two signals that are associated. Learning in other invertebrate preparations also involves many of the same mechanisms, which may contribute to learning in vertebrates as well.

Nonassociative learning in invertebrates.

The simplicity and tractability of the neural circuits mediating behaviors in invertebrates have facilitated the cellular/molecular dissection of neural mechanisms underlying learning. The review has a particular focus on the general principles that have emerged from analyses of an example of nonassociative learning, sensitization in the marine mollusk Aplysia. Learning and memory rely on multiple mechanisms of plasticity at multiple sites of the neuronal circuits, with the relative contribution to memory of the different sites varying as a function of the extent of training and time after training. The same intracellular signaling cascades that induce short-term modifications in synaptic transmission can also be used to induce long-term changes. Although short-term memory relies on covalent modifications of preexisting proteins, long-term memory also requires regulated gene transcription and translation. Maintenance of long-term cellular memory involves both intracellular and extracellular feedback loops, which sustain the regulation of gene expression and the modification of targeted molecules.

Retinoid signaling is necessary for, and promotes long-term memory formation following operant conditioning

Retinoic acid, a metabolite of vitamin A, is proposed to play an important role in vertebrate learning and memory, as well as hippocampal-dependent synaptic plasticity. However, it has not yet been determined whether retinoic acid plays a similar role in learning and memory in invertebrates. In this study, we report that retinoid signaling in the mollusc Lymnaea stagnalis, is required for long-term memory formation following operant conditioning of its aerial respiratory behaviour. Animals were exposed to inhibitors of the RALDH enzyme (which synthesizes retinoic acid), or various retinoid receptor antagonists. Following exposure to these inhibitors, neither learning nor intermediate-term memory (lasting 2h) was affected, but long-term memory formation (tested at either 24 or 72h) was inhibited. We next demonstrated that various retinoid receptor agonists promoted long-term memory formation. Using a training paradigm shown only to produce intermediate-term memory (lasting 2h, but not 24h) we found that exposure of animals to synthetic retinoids promoted memory formation that lasted up to 30h. These findings suggest that the role of retinoids in memory formation is ancient in origin, and that retinoid signaling is also important for the formation of implicit memories, in addition to its previously demonstrated role in hippocampal-dependent memories.

‘Invertebrate Learning and Memory’ Edited by Randolf Menzel and Paul R. Benjamin: A review

In a new volume in the Handbooks of behavioural neuroscience series (series editor Joseph P. Huston), Randolf Menzel and Paul Benjamin have assembled an excellent and authoritative account of the importance, value and contribution of invertebrate models to the analysis of the molecular basis of learning and memory consolidation.

Invertebrate learning and cognition: relating phenomena to neural substrate.

Diverse invertebrate species have been used for studies of learning and comparative cognition. Although we have gained invaluable information from this, in this study we argue that our approach to comparative learning research is rather deficient. Generally invertebrate learning research has focused mainly on arthropods, and most of that within the Hymenoptera and Diptera. Any true comparative analysis of the distribution of comparative cognitive abilities across phyla is hampered by this bias, and more fundamentally by a reporting bias toward positive results. To understand the limits of learning and cognition for a species, knowing what animals cannot do is at least as important as reporting what they can. Finally, much more effort needs to be focused on the neurobiological analysis of different types of learning to truly understand the differences and similarities of learning types. In this review, we first give a brief overview of the various forms of learning in invertebrates. We also suggest areas where further study is needed for a more comparative understanding of learning. Finally, using what is known of learning in honeybees and the well-studied honeybee brain, we present a model of how various complex forms of learning may be accounted for with the same neural circuitry required for so-called simple learning types. At the neurobiological level, different learning phenomena are unlikely to be independent, and without considering this it is very difficult to correctly interpret the phylogenetic distribution of learning and cognitive abilities. WIREs Cogn Sci 2013, 4:561-582. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1248 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.