Learned Helplessness Experiment Research Articles

Learned helplessness paradigm in P2xr7 wild type and knock out mice and its effect on synapses in the dentate gyrus

Although depression is one of the prevailing central nervous system disorders, there is still not enough knowledge about the exact alterations underlying its pathophysiology and the treatment is often inefficient. Our study aims at exploring a potential relationship between major depressive disorder and the purinergic P2X7 receptor (P2X7R), since in previous behavioural tests P2rx7 knock out mice displayed an antidepressant-like phenotype. Among many other known symptoms, the loss of hippocampal spine synapses is a revealing feature of the disorder. Therefore we wanted to measure the density of spine synapses in the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus in the learned helplessness paradigm and later see if genetic inhibition of P2X7R could have influence on this condition. Wild type C57Bl/6 and P2rx7 knock out male mice were exposed to inescapable footshocks (IES) in shuttle boxes during 2 training days and on the 3rd day learned helplessness was tested, where helpless animals usually failed to escape. Control animals were also placed in shuttle boxes but did not receive footshocks until testing. Escape failures and the latency to escape were measured to determine helpless behaviour. Electron microscopy analysis was performed to determine spine synapse density in the different groups. In wild type mice both average escape latency and the number of failed escapes were significantly higher in the IES treated group, however, we could not find such divergency in P2rx7 knock out mice. Electron microscopy analysis confirmed alterations in spine synapse density in the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus subsequent to learned helplessness experiments, as results indicated a significant decrease in spine synapse density in wild type mice, but not in knock out animals. These findings may lead to presume a role of the P2X7 receptor in this disorder and further experiments will hopefully help get a better understanding and thus more effective treatment of major depression.

The Milgram Experiments, Learned Helplessness, and Character Traits

The Milgram and other situationist experiments support the real-life evidence that most of us are highly akratic and heteronomous, and that Aristototelian virtue is not global. Indeed, like global theoretical knowledge, global virtue is psychologically impossible because it requires too much of finite human beings with finite powers in a finite life; virtue can only be domain-specific. But unlike local, situation-specific virtues, domain-specific virtues entail some general understanding of what matters in life, and are connected conceptually and causally to our traits in other domains. The experiments also make us aware of how easily unobtrusive situational factors can tap our susceptibilities to obedience, conformity, irresponsibility, cruelty, or indifference to others’ welfare, thereby empowering us to change ourselves for the better. Thus, they advance the Socratic project of living the examined life. I note a remarkable parallel between the results of the baseline Milgram experiments and the results of the learned helplessness experiments by Martin Seligman et al. This provides fresh insight into the psychology and character of the obedient Milgram subjects, and I use this insight to argue that pusillanimity, as Aristotle conceives of it, is part of a complete explanation of the behavior of the obedient Milgram subjects.

Um olhar crítico sobre o estudo do desamparo aprendido

O desamparo aprendido vem sendo observado numa grande variedade de espécies. Esse artigo mostra as características básicas dos experimentos sobre desamparo aprendido realizados com sujeitos infra-humanos. A análise crítica da maioria desses experimentos revela problemas de procedimento e mensuração do fenômeno, além de pouca precisão nas definições empregadas. É descrito um procedimento modificado, o qual produziu resultados mais precisos quanto à aprendizagem operante em estudo, se comparados com os resultados dos procedimentos convencionais. Sugere-se que a maior precisão dos experimentos sobre desamparo aprendido trará importantes contribuições para a análise do comportamento em geral, e para a investigação do controle aversivo e dos efeitos da não contingência, em particular.

No spatial learning impairment following exposure to inescapable shock

Uncontrollable stressors produce changes both in hippocampal physiology and in cognitive performance. It has been suggested that some of the cognitive effects of uncontrollable shock may be mediated by disturbances in hippocampal processes. We evaluated the prediction that inescapable shock should produce a learning deficit in a task known to be particularly sensitive to disruption in hippocampal function-the Morris water-maze spatial-learning task. Exposure to a single session of inescapable shock of the type typically employed in learned helplessness experiments produced no apparent effect on performance regardless of whether shock was given 30 min or 6 h prior to water-maze training or whether animals were tested at retention intervals of 0, 1, 4, or 24 h following training. Similarly, no effect of inescapable shock was observed when shock treatment and water-maze training were distributed over three daily sessions. These results are inconsistent with the hypothesis that the effects of inescapable shock on cognitive performance result from disturbances in hippocampal function.

A computerized system for learned helplessness experiments

A microcomputer-based system for carrying out learned helplesness experiment is describe. The hardware is inexpensive and easily available. The program is written in BASIC and must be executed in the compiled form in order to keep up with real-time events. It contains an algorithm for calculating inter-trial interval and allows the experimentor to freely select experimental conditions such as duration of shock, number of trials, etc. The task that the rat is required to do stop the shock is also selectable thus giving the experimentor the opportunity to maximize behavioral differences between escapable and inescapable rats while these differences are being induced. Experimental data on 12 rats that went through this automated protocol are analyzed and discussed.

Predictability and Timing of Self-Report in Learned Helplessness Experiments

An experiment is reported that attempted to assess the contribution of unpredictability to the learned helplessness effect. Contrary to learned helplessness theory, performance deficits resulted from exposure to uncontrollable events only when uncontrollability was also accompanied by unpredictability. Uncontrollable but predictable outcomes did not produce the effect. The experiment also demonstrated that the timing of self-report has an influence on expressed subjective confidence ratings, a finding of some significance in view of the methodology of human helplessness experiments.

Effect of an anti-anxiety drug in a learned helplessness experiment.

Rats were injected with chlordiazepoxide 30 min before a situation of uncontrollable stress, or 30 min before an FR-3 escape test 24 h after the uncontrollable stress. Only in the latter situation they reduced their response latencies. The conclusion was that helplessness after moderate stress (i.e. electric shock) resembles a state of anxiety. Anxiety can be described on a behavioural level as inhibiting the ongoing behaviour. Therefore an explanation in terms of anxiety is in agreement with Weiss' inactivity hypothesis and with the results of the study by Drugan et al., who also emphasized the role of anxiety or fear in learned helplessness experiments.

Effects of (non-)contingency in a learned helplessness experiment: A re-analysis based on mood changes

In a previous study (Albersnagel, Arntz and Gerlsma, 1986) various aspects central to the attributional learned helplessness (LH) model were experimentally tested. The aim of the present study is to re-examine these issues using subsamples of Ss composed on the basis of substantial mood changes produced by experimental manipulation. The main hypothesis of this re-analysis, i.e. affect more than cognition or attribution plays a central role in learned helplessness, could not be substantiated. Although strong learned helplessness effects were reached in expectancy and certainty after non-contingent negative bogus feedback on an IQ test, this did not result in any substantial changes in achievement in the hypothesized direction. As in the previous study, neither the supposed mediating functions of attribution, nor the hypothesized function of ‘importance’, played a major role in the intensity of LH effects. Several suggestions are made to account for these results, and the best direction for future research is indicated.

The personal interests questionnaire: A task-specific measure of locus of control and motivation for use in learned helplessness research

In order to assess the influence of motivation and locus of cotrol differences on the development of helplessness deficits, more task-specific measures of both constructs are needed. As a result, the Personal Interests Questionnaire (PIQ) was designed to measure motivation and expectation of control when engaged in tasks like those normally employed in learned helplessness experiments. Both scales of the PIQ were found to display adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability. In the case of the Motivation scale, construct and discriminant validity were demonstrated by a moderately significant correlation with the Desirability of Control scale (Burger and Cooper, 1979). The ability (locus of control) scale of the PIQ displayed discriminant validity from the Nowicki Strickland I-E scale (Nowicki and Duke, 1974). The criterion validity of both PIQ scales was supported in a study in which Ss rated their motivation and confidence prior to undertaking a button-press task. Significant correlations were found between these ratings and PIQ Motivation and Ability scores, respectively.

Some limitations of the attributional learned helplessness model on understanding effects of (non-) contingency: A controlled study in Dutch adolescents

This study aims at testing for the various aspects central to the attributional learned helplessness model in an experiment designed to optimize ecological validity. Two-hundred and seventy eight Dutch secondary school pupils participated in a learned helplessness experiment, held in the classroom. At pretest an IQ test, the ASQ and some other materials were filled out. Corresponding to random assignment to a noncontingent negative, a noncontingent positive and a contingent group, subjects received at post-test, six days later, bogus feedback about their IQ test result. At post-test also, a parallel form of the first IQ test and several other tests were presented, interspersed by ratings of expectancy, certainty and momentary mood (repeated measures design). Relating to (non-)contingency, the validity of the learned helplessness model seems to be limited: effects of (non-)contingency on expectancy, achievement and mood on the whole cannot be fully understood without considering interactions between subjects' characteristics, schooltype, and the type of the dependent variables. In relation to the alleged mediating functions of attributions, it is revealed to be of little importance which attribution is made, but it is important whether any attribution is made at all. In respect of the intensity of learned helplessness, results do not show much support for the hypothesized relationships. Discussion of results lead us to conclude, that learned helplessness theory may gain by supplementing it with other theoretical notions, such as those relating to sex differences, fear of success and the relationship between emotion and cognition.

Attributional style questioned: Psychometric evaluation of the ASQ in Dutch adolescents

This study presents data on the psychometric properties and validity of the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), administered as part of a learned helplessness experiment among 278 Dutch adolescents. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that there was only weak evidence for the presumed ASQ dimensions. Further analyses revealed that situations seem to explain more variance than attributional styles. Correlations with mood and depressive symptoms were low or absent. The ASQ unsatisfactorily predicted attributions for noncontingent success or failure on an IQ test. Experimental effects on mood, expectancy and achievement were poorly predicted by the ASQ. Predictive and discriminant validity of ASQ subscales were weak, results reflecting sex-dependency. In contradiction to the concept of depressive attributional style, internal and stable styles for good outcomes were associated with negative emotions following noncontingent success. Girls with these styles showed relatively more hostility after noncontingent success, suggesting that the success offended sex-related norms. Unless the test format causes the disappointing results, this study suggests that: (1) the concept of cross-situationally consistent traitlike attributional style should be questioned, (2) theories about effects of failure and success should take sex differences and situation specifity into account, and (3) the construct of conscious-verbal, explicit attribution as a determinant of emotions and behavior may be inadequate.

Learned helplessness and IQ differences

Two groups of adult Ss differing in verbal IQ were compared in a learned helplessness experiment involving cognitive tasks and non-contingent rewards. The mean IQs for the two groups were 131 and 117. As predicted, the higher IQ Ss performed better overall and showed greater awareness of the response-outcome contingency. Their test-task performance was also more affected by the contingency manipulation although this occured only with success feedback. Implications of the results for cognitive accounts of human helplessness are discussed.

Cognitive performance deficits induced by exposure to response-independent positive outcomes

Private secondary school students differing in achievement motivation took part in a learned helplessness experiment using a triadic design and noncontingent rewards. A clear learned helplessness effect was observed in both high and low achievement motivation groups. The findings confirmed those from an earlier study using younger subjects drawn from a lower socioeconomic background. However, the results of both experiments were quite different from those of another recently reported investigation using university students that found facilitation as well as an interaction between achievement motivation level and treatment (Jardine & Winefield, 1981). It is concluded that the development of learned helplessness probably depends on the kind of environment in which noncontingent outcomes are experienced.

Effects of an institutional environment on responses to uncontrollable outcomes

Students from two different high schools were compared in a learned helplessness experiment using a yoked triadic design and noncontingent rewards. Students attending a traditional type of school showed a marked performance deficit, whereas students attending a school organized in accordance with an open plan approach showed no effect. Implications of the results for models of human helplessness are discussed.

Learned helplessness in high school students following experience of noncontingent rewards

High school students differing in achievement motivation were subjects in a learned helplessness experiment using a yoked triadic design with noncontingent rewards. A strong helplessness effect was observed in both high- and low-achievement motivation groups. A postexperimental questionnaire revealed that perceived response-outcome independence was induced under the noncontingent reinforcement condition, but was not associated with perceived failure. The results were seen as strong support for the original learned helplessness model in two important respects. First they refute recent claims that learned helplessness depends on aversive outcomes, and second they show that human helplessness can be distinguished from experimenter-induced failure.

Learned helplessness and learned effectiveness: effects of explicit response cues on individuals differing in personal control expectancies.

Female undergraduates (n = 62) who scored as extreme internals or externals on the Mirels Personal Fate Control Scale participated in a partial replication of Hiroto's learned helplessness experiment. Lights were added to the treatment apparatus, which made explicit to subjects the contingency or noncontingency between their responses and the termination of an aversive tone. As predicted, the performance of internals was significantly impaired by uncontrollability (learned helplessness), while that of externals was facilitated by controllability (learned effectiveness). Externals performed as well as internals in the "escapable" condition, but their performance was inferior to that of internals in the control condition. Following "inescapable" treatment, internals performed worse than externals. These results are supportive of Lefcourt's theory of cue explication. Implications for locus of control and learned helplessness research are discussed.