Layer Vb Research Articles

Optimization of Several Parameters Towards 30% Efficiency Perovskite Based Solar Cell Using SCAPS-1D Software

A simulated perovskite solar cell based on a P3HT/MAPbI3/C60 structure is examined to achieve 30% PCE using SCAPS-1D software. Several aspects of the perovskite layer were evaluated, including the perovskite layer thickness, CB and VB effective density of state, band gap, and electron affinity. These factors show great influence on the device performance. The best device based on the best examined parameter has exhibited a PCE of 32.1% correlated with FF of 84.8%, VOC of 1.23V and JSC of 30.77 mA.cm-2. Such a result is promising towards achieving high PCE for perovskite-based solar cells by optimizing several factors, including active layer thickness, energy band gap, electron affinity, and effective state density for CB and VB. However, for the experimentally produced solar cells, the preparation condition and other factors may render this result. A low effective DOS of (1x1016m-3) is desired for both CB and VB to achieve high solar cell performance.

Laminar fMRI in the locked-in stage of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis shows preserved activity in layer Vb of primary motor cortex

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) affects the cerebral cortex layer-dependently, most notably by the foremost targeting of upper motor neurons (UMNs) sited in layer Vb. Previous studies have shown a retained ability of paralysed patients to activate cortical motor networks, even in late-stage ALS. However, it is currently unknown whether such activation reflects a retained capacity to process sensorimotor inputs or if it is a result of actual motor output. Given the distinct function of individual cortical layers, layer-specific functional measurements may provide insight to this question. In this study, using submillimetre resolution laminar fMRI, we assessed the layer-dependent activation associated with attempted (motor) and passive (somatosensory) movements in a locked-in stage ALS patient. We found robust activation in both superficial and deep layers of primary motor cortex (M1). The peak activation in deep layers was localised to layer Vb. These findings demonstrate preserved activity in deep output layers of M1, possibly reflecting a retained ability to engage surviving UMNs despite years of paralysis. Our study underscores the capacity of laminar fMRI to discern subtle cortical activity and elucidates a promising pathway for probing in vivo human ALS pathology with unprecedented resolution.

Von Economo neurons as a specialized neuron class of the human cerebral cortex

By studying human cortical cytoarchitecture, von Economo noticed large spindle-shaped-neurons within layer Vb in the anterior-cingulate and fronto-insular cortex. Those neurons had such extremely elongated stick-like or corkscrew-like soma shape that appeared to him as a pathological alteration. Eventually, he realized that this was a specialized-type of neuron which he described as distinct from the main cortical cell populations, including the commonly found spindle cells. Data from recent studies suggest that specialized-stick-corkscrew-neurons may have first developed in the fronto-insular cortex before the division of hominids and Old World monkeys, and that they have become abundant in the anterior-cingulate cortex only in the hominid line. Golgi analysis found that they have distinctive somato-dendritic morphology with a characteristic very distal position of their axon origin. Many additional studies claimed to find cells similar to the specialized cells described by von Economo in other non-primate species, even in functionally unrelated cortical regions and layers. However, these studies did not provide sufficient evidence that the cells they described are indeed distinct from common spindle-shaped-neurons, and that they truly correspond to the specialized-stick-corkscrew-cells described by von Economo. We believe that present evidence primarily supports the presence of specialized-stick-corkscrew-neurons in hominids, with a seeming increase in their number in humans compared to other primates. The functional significance of such neuronal specialization within specific areas of the human cerebral cortex remains to be elucidated.

Hippocampal-medial entorhinal circuit is differently organized along the dorsoventral axis in rodents

The general understanding of hippocampal circuits is that the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex (EC) are topographically connected through parallel identical circuits along the dorsoventral axis. Our anterograde tracing and invitro electrophysiology data, however, show a markedly different dorsoventral organization of the hippocampal projection to the medial EC (MEC). While dorsal hippocampal projections are confined to the dorsal MEC, ventral hippocampal projections innervate both dorsal and ventral MEC. Further, whereas the dorsal hippocampus preferentially targets layer Vb (LVb) neurons, the ventral hippocampus mainly targets cells in layer Va (LVa). This connectivity scheme differs from hippocampal projections to thelateral EC, which are topographically organized along the dorsoventral axis. As LVa neurons project to telencephalic structures, our findings indicate that the ventral hippocampus regulates LVa-mediated entorhinal-neocortical output from both dorsal and ventral MEC. Overall, the marked dorsoventral differences in hippocampal-entorhinal connectivity impose important constraints on signal flow in hippocampal-neocortical circuits.

Repetitively burst-spiking neurons in reeler mice show conserved but also highly variable morphological features of layer Vb-fated "thick-tufted" pyramidal cells.

Reelin is a large extracellular glycoprotein that is secreted by Cajal-Retzius cells during embryonic development to regulate neuronal migration and cell proliferation but it also seems to regulate ion channel distribution and synaptic vesicle release properties of excitatory neurons well into adulthood. Mouse mutants with a compromised reelin signaling cascade show a highly disorganized neocortex but the basic connectional features of the displaced excitatory principal cells seem to be relatively intact. Very little is known, however, about the intrinsic electrophysiological and morphological properties of individual cells in the reeler cortex. Repetitive burst-spiking (RB) is a unique property of large, thick-tufted pyramidal cells of wild-type layer Vb exclusively, which project to several subcortical targets. In addition, they are known to possess sparse but far-reaching intracortical recurrent collaterals. Here, we compared the electrophysiological properties and morphological features of neurons in the reeler primary somatosensory cortex with those of wild-type controls. Whereas in wild-type mice, RB pyramidal cells were only detected in layer Vb, and the vast majority of reeler RB pyramidal cells were found in the superficial third of the cortical depth. There were no obvious differences in the intrinsic electrophysiological properties and basic morphological features (such as soma size or the number of dendrites) were also well preserved. However, the spatial orientation of the entire dendritic tree was highly variable in the reeler neocortex, whereas it was completely stereotyped in wild-type mice. It seems that basic quantitative features of layer Vb-fated RB pyramidal cells are well conserved in the highly disorganized mutant neocortex, whereas qualitative morphological features vary, possibly to properly orient toward the appropriate input pathways, which are known to show an atypical oblique path through the reeler cortex. The oblique dendritic orientation thus presumably reflects a re-orientation of dendritic input domains toward spatially highly disorganized afferent projections.

Single Cell Transcriptomic and Chromatin Profiles Suggest Layer Vb Is the Only Layer With Shared Excitatory Cell Types in the Medial and Lateral Entorhinal Cortex.

All brain functionality arises from the activity in neural circuits in different anatomical regions. These regions contain different circuits comprising unique cell types. An integral part to understanding neural circuits is a full census of the constituent parts, i.e., the neural cell types. This census can be based on different characteristics. Previously combinations of morphology and physiology, gene expression, and chromatin accessibility have been used in various cortical and subcortical regions. This has given an extensive yet incomplete overview of neural cell types. However, these techniques have not been applied to all brain regions. Here we apply single cell analysis of accessible chromatin on two similar but different cortical regions, the medial and the lateral entorhinal cortices. Even though these two regions are anatomically similar, their intrinsic and extrinsic connectivity are different. In 4,136 cells we identify 20 different clusters representing different cell types. As expected, excitatory cells show regionally specific clusters, whereas inhibitory neurons are shared between regions. We find that several deep layer excitatory neuronal cell types as defined by chromatin profile are also shared between the two different regions. Integration with a larger scRNA-seq dataset maintains this shared characteristic for cells in Layer Vb. Interestingly, this layer contains three clusters, two specific to either subregion and one shared between the two. These clusters can be putatively associated with particular functional and anatomical cell types found in this layer. This information is a step forwards into elucidating the cell types within the entorhinal circuit and by extension its functional underpinnings.

Local projections of layer Vb-to-Va are more prominent in lateral than in medial entorhinal cortex.

The entorhinal cortex, in particular neurons in layer V, allegedly mediate transfer of information from the hippocampus to the neocortex, underlying long-term memory. Recently, this circuit has been shown to comprise a hippocampal output recipient layer Vb and a cortical projecting layer Va. With the use of in vitro electrophysiology in transgenic mice specific for layer Vb, we assessed the presence of the thus necessary connection from layer Vb-to-Va in the functionally distinct medial (MEC) and lateral (LEC) subdivisions; MEC, particularly its dorsal part, processes allocentric spatial information, whereas the corresponding part of LEC processes information representing elements of episodes. Using identical experimental approaches, we show that connections from layer Vb-to-Va neurons are stronger in dorsal LEC compared with dorsal MEC, suggesting different operating principles in these two regions. Although further in vivo experiments are needed, our findings imply a potential difference in how LEC and MEC mediate episodic systems consolidation.

The extracellular matrix regulates cortical layer dynamics and cross-columnar frequency integration in the auditory cortex

In the adult vertebrate brain, enzymatic removal of the extracellular matrix (ECM) is increasingly recognized to promote learning, memory recall, and restorative plasticity. The impact of the ECM on translaminar dynamics during cortical circuit processing is still not understood. Here, we removed the ECM in the primary auditory cortex (ACx) of adult Mongolian gerbils using local injections of hyaluronidase (HYase). Using laminar current-source density (CSD) analysis, we found layer-specific changes of the spatiotemporal synaptic patterns with increased cross-columnar integration and simultaneous weakening of early local sensory input processing within infragranular layers Vb. These changes had an oscillatory fingerprint within beta-band (25–36 Hz) selectively within infragranular layers Vb. To understand the laminar interaction dynamics after ECM digestion, we used time-domain conditional Granger causality (GC) measures to identify the increased drive of supragranular layers towards deeper infragranular layers. These results showed that ECM degradation altered translaminar cortical network dynamics with a stronger supragranular lead of the columnar response profile.

Patterns of Dendritic Basal Field Orientation of Pyramidal Neurons in the Rat Somatosensory Cortex.

The study of neuronal dendritic orientation is of interest because it is related to how neurons grow dendrites to establish the synaptic input that neurons receive. The dendritic orientations of neurons in the nervous system vary, ranging from rather heterogeneously distributed (asymmetric) to homogeneously distributed (symmetric) dendritic arbors. Here, we analyze the dendritic orientation of the basal dendrites of intracellularly labeled pyramidal neurons from horizontal sections of Layers II–VI of the hindlimb somatosensory (S1HL) cortex of 14-d-old (P14) rats. We used circular statistics and proposed two new graphical descriptive representations of the neuron. We found that the dendritic pattern of most neurons was asymmetric. Furthermore, we found that there is a mixture of different types of orientations within any given group of neurons in any cortical layer. In addition, we investigated whether dendritic orientation was related to the physical location within the brain with respect to the anterior, dorsal, posterior and ventral directions. Generally, there was a preference towards the anterior orientation. A comparison between layers revealed that the preference for the anterior orientation was more pronounced in neurons located in Layers II, III, IV, and Va than for the neurons located in Layers Vb and VI. The dorsal orientation was the least preferred orientation in all layers, except for Layers IV and Va, where the ventral orientation had the lowest preference. Therefore, the orientation of basal dendritic arbors of pyramidal cells is variable and asymmetric, although a majority has a single orientation with a preference for the anterior direction in P14 rats.

Intrinsic Projections of Layer Vb Neurons to Layers Va, III, and II in the Lateral and Medial Entorhinal Cortex of the Rat

Layer V of the entorhinal cortex (EC) receives input from the hippocampus and originates main entorhinal outputs. The deep-sublayer Vb, immunopositive for the transcription factor Ctip2, is thought to be the main recipient of hippocampal projections, whereas the superficial-sublayer LVa, immunonegative for Ctip2, originates the main outputs of EC. This disrupts the proposed role of EC as mediating hippocampal-cortical interactions. With the use of specific (trans)synaptic tracing approaches, we report that, in medial entorhinal cortex, layer Vb neurons innervate neurons in layers Va, II, and III. A similar circuitry exists in the lateral entorhinal cortex. We conclude that EC-layer Vb neurons mediate two circuits in the hippocampus-memory system: (1) a hippocampal output circuit to telencephalic areas by projecting to layer Va and (2) a feedback projection, sending information back to the EC-hippocampal loop via neurons in layers II and III.

Anterior Cingulate Cortex TDP-43 Pathology in Sporadic Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.

Neuronal constituents of the human anterior cingulate cortex displayed morphological changes related to the 43-kDa transactive response DNA-binding protein (TDP-43) in advanced pathological stages of sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (sALS). By using nonphosphorylation-dependent TDP-43 immunocytochemistry, it was seen that the changes in susceptible pyramidal cells of the superficial cellular layers II-IIIab differed from those in the deep layers IIIc-Vb: A complete loss of nuclear TDP-43 expression (i.e. nuclear clearing) in the small projection neurons of layers II-IIIab was consistently accompanied by the development of somatic skein-like TDP-43-immunopositive inclusions. In contrast, in the large pyramidal cells of layers IIIc-Vb and von Economo neurons of layer Vb, skein-like inclusions were lacking or, when aggregated TDP-43 was present, the aggregates presented as dash-like TDP-43-immunopositive particles in the vicinity of the cell nucleus. The cytoskeleton of projection neurons in layers II-IIIab is neurofilament-sparse in contrast to that of the large neurons in layers IIIc-Vb, which are rich in neurofilaments and also heat shock proteins that function as their molecular chaperones. The disparities between the two neuronal populations may contribute to the two differing immunocytochemical profiles reported here. Some implications of the findings for the pathogenesis and progression of TDP-43 pathology in sALS are discussed.

Is Neuroscience Compatible with a Belief in God? A Perspective from the Thalamus

: Microarchitecture of thalamic inputs suggests that the main information that reaches the cortex trans-thalamically contains copies of motor instructions issued to lower motor centers in the central nervous system. This includes all sensory inputs that reach the cortex with the sole exception of olfaction. Moreover, all cortical areas, regardless of their classification as sensory, motor or associational, contain layer VB neurons that have branching axons that innervate both lower motor centers in the CNS and thalamic relays. These findings together challenge the sensory versus motor dichotomy within the thalamus and the cortex and suggest that all thalamocortical interactions are to some extent both, sensory and motor. This means that agency and perception are inseparable. All experience is, therefore, necessarily a model for an agent. An important feature of all models is that they have outside requirements to function as such. They are not ends in themselves. The necessary background for a model can be provided by other more basic models, which is something that contemporary science has done very successfully. However, science, which is itself a model, ultimately requires the existence of something that is unmodelable. Therefore, being a scientist and believing in God is not contradictory.

Pathological TDP-43 changes in Betz cells differ from those in bulbar and spinal \u03b1-motoneurons in sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Two nerve cells types, Betz cells in layer Vb of the primary motor neocortex and α-motoneurons of the lower brainstem and spinal cord, become involved at the beginning of the pathological cascade underlying sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (sALS). In both neuronal types, the cell nuclei forfeit their normal (non-phosphorylated) expression of the 43-kDa transactive response DNA-binding protein (TDP-43). Here, we present initial evidence that in α-motoneurons the loss of normal nuclear TDP-43 expression is followed by the formation of phosphorylated TDP-43 aggregates (pTDP-43) within the cytoplasm, whereas in Betz cells, by contrast, the loss of normal nuclear TDP-43 expression remains mostly unaccompanied by the development of cytoplasmic aggregations. We discuss some implications of this phenomenon of nuclear clearing in the absence of cytoplasmic inclusions, namely, abnormal but soluble (and, thus, probably toxic) cytoplasmic TDP-43 could enter the axoplasm of Betz cells, and following its transmission to the corresponding α-motoneurons in the lower brainstem and spinal cord, possibly contribute in recipient neurons to the dysregulation of the normal nuclear protein. Because the cellular mechanisms that possibly inhibit the aggregation of TDP-43 in the cytoplasm of involved Betz cells are unknown, insight into such mechanisms could disclose a pathway by which the development of aggregates in this cell population could be accelerated, thereby opening an avenue for a causally based therapy.

Morphological Characteristics of Electrophysiologically Characterized Layer Vb Pyramidal Cells in Rat Barrel Cortex.

Layer Vb pyramidal cells are the major output neurons of the neocortex and transmit the outcome of cortical columnar signal processing to distant target areas. At the same time they contribute to local tactile information processing by emitting recurrent axonal collaterals into the columnar microcircuitry. It is, however, not known how exactly the two types of pyramidal cells, called slender-tufted and thick-tufted, contribute to the local circuitry. Here, we investigated in the rat barrel cortex the detailed quantitative morphology of biocytin-filled layer Vb pyramidal cells in vitro, which were characterized for their intrinsic electrophysiology with special emphasis on their action potential firing pattern. Since we stained the same slices for cytochrome oxidase, we could also perform layer- and column-related analyses. Our results suggest that in layer Vb the unambiguous action potential firing patterns "regular spiking (RS)" and "repetitive burst spiking (RB)" (previously called intrinsically burst spiking) correlate well with a distinct morphology. RS pyramidal cells are somatodendritically of the slender-tufted type and possess numerous local intralaminar and intracolumnar axonal collaterals, mostly reaching layer I. By contrast, their transcolumnar projections are less well developed. The RB pyramidal cells are somatodendritically of the thick-tufted type and show only relatively sparse local axonal collaterals, which are preferentially emitted as long horizontal or oblique infragranular collaterals. However, contrary to many previous slice studies, a substantial number of these neurons also showed axonal collaterals reaching layer I. Thus, electrophysiologically defined pyramidal cells of layer Vb show an input and output pattern which suggests RS cells to be more "locally segregating" signal processors whereas RB cells seem to act more on a "global integrative" scale.

Bondi Cave and the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic transition in western Georgia (south Caucasus)

Abstract The late Pleistocene expansion of anatomically modern humans (AMHs) into Eurasia and the concurrent demise of the Neanderthals appears to be a complex and regionally variable process. The southern Caucasus region, with its rich cave-sites, has recently provided important results regarding this process. In this paper we report on the results of fieldwork in Bondi Cave, Western Georgia, providing a new radiocarbon chronology, stratigraphic observations, analyses of lithic technology and provenance, faunal and floral remains as well as paleoenvironmental data. The cave includes Middle Palaeolithic (ca, 45,000 ka cal. BP) cultural horizons and a long Upper Palaeolithic sequence (ca. 40,000–27,000 cal. BP from layer V to IV). A modern human tooth was found in layer Vb. We estimate its age at 39,000–35,800 Cal BP (95.4%), based on the Bayesian age model we built. If the context of the tooth is reliable, as we think it is, this would make it the oldest morphologically modern human in the Caucasus. Upper Palaeolithic hunting of tur and bison, as well as the collection of various plants including flax is attested. Mobile Upper Palaeolithic foragers inhabited the cave in generally cold and dry periods, but a mosaic of environments, including forests and meadows, was nonetheless available to them. The archaeological sequence of Bondi and adjacent sites indicates a substantial time gap between the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic occupations, thus disproving Neanderthal-AMH interaction in this area and lending support to a replacement scenario in the southern Caucasus, assuming of course that the Early Upper Palaeolithic (EUP) is related to the arrival of AMHs.

Inflammatory cytokines influence measures of white matter integrity in bipolar disorder

Midcingulate cortex (MCC) has risen in prominence as human imaging identifies unique structural and functional activity therein and this is the first review of its structure, connections, functions and disease vulnerabilities. The MCC has two divisions (anterior, aMCC and posterior, pMCC) that represent functional units and the cytoarchitecture, connections and neurocytology of each is shown with immunohistochemistry and receptor binding. The MCC is not a division of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the “dorsal ACC” designation is a misnomer as it incorrectly implies that MCC is a division of ACC. Interpretation of findings among species and developing models of human diseases requires detailed comparative studies which is shown here for five species with flat maps and immunohistochemistry (human, monkey, rabbit, rat, mouse). The largest neurons in human cingulate cortex are in layer Vb of area 24 d in pMCC which project to the spinal cord. This area is part of the caudal cingulate premotor area which is involved in multisensory orientation of the head and body in space and neuron responses are tuned for the force and direction of movement. In contrast, the rostral cingulate premotor area in aMCC is involved in action-reinforcement associations and selection based on the amount of reward or aversive properties of a potential movement. The aMCC is activated by nociceptive information from the midline, mediodorsal and intralaminar thalamic nuclei which evoke fear and mediates nocifensive behaviors. This subregion also has high dopaminergic afferents and high dopamine-1 receptor binding and is engaged in reward processes. Opposing pain/avoidance and reward/approach functions are selected by assessment of potential outcomes and error detection according to feedback-mediated, decision making. Parietal afferents differentially terminate in MCC and provide for multisensory control in an eye- and head-centric manner. Finally, MCC vulnerability in human disease confirms the unique organization of MCC and supports the predictive validity of the MCC dichotomy. Vulnerability of aMCC is shown in chronic pain, obsessive-compulsive disorder with checking symptoms and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and methylphenidate and pain medications selectively impact aMCC. In contrast, pMCC vulnerabilities are for progressive supranuclear palsy, unipolar depression and posttraumatic stress disorder. Thus, there is an emerging picture of the organization, functions and diseases of MCC. Future work will take this type of modular analysis to individual areas of which there are at least 10 in MCC.

Cingulate area 32 homologies in mouse, rat, macaque and human: Cytoarchitecture and receptor architecture

Homologizing between human and nonhuman area 32 has been impaired since Brodmann said he could not homologize with certainty human area 32 to a specific cortical domain in other species. Human area 32 has four divisions, however, and two can be structurally homologized to nonhuman species with cytoarchitecture and receptor architecture: pregenual (p32) and subgenual (s32) in human and macaque monkey and areas d32 and v32 in rat and mouse. Cytoarchitecture showed that areas d32/p32 have a dysgranular layer IV in all species and that areas v32/s32 have large and dense neurons in layer V, whereas a layer IV is not present in area v32. Areas v32/s32 have the largest neurons in layer Va. Features unique to humans include large layer IIIc pyramids in both divisions, sparse layer Vb in area p32, and elongated neurons in layer VI, with area s32 having the largest layer Va neurons. Receptor fingerprints of both subdivisions of area 32 differed between species in size and shape, although AMPA/GABAA and NMDA/GABAA ratios were comparable among humans, monkeys, and rats and were significantly lower than in mice. Layers I-III of primate and rodent area 32 subdivisions share more similarities in their receptor densities than layers IV-VI. Monkey and human subdivisions of area 32 are more similar to each other than to rat and mouse subdivisions. In combination with intracingulate connections, the location, cytoarchitecture, and ligand binding studies demonstrate critical homologies among the four species.

Von Economo neurones are selectively targeted in frontotemporal dementia

Backgroundvon Economo neurones (VEN) are bipolar neurones located in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the frontoinsular cortex (FI), areas affected early in behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD), in which VEN may constitute a selectively vulnerable cellular population.AimA previous study has shown a selective loss of VEN in FTD above other neurones in the ACC of FTD. The aim of this study was to confirm this finding in a larger cohort, using a different methodology, and to examine VEN loss in relation to neuropathological severity and molecular pathology.MethodsVEN and neighbouring neurones (NN) were quantified in layers Va and Vb of the right dorsal ACC in 21 cases of bvFTD, 10 cases of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and 10 non-demented controls (NDC).ResultsA marked VEN reduction was seen in all FTD cases. In the neuropathologically early cases of FTD (n = 13), VEN/10 000 NN was significantly reduced by 53% compared with NDC (P < 0.001) and 41% compared with AD (P = 0.019), whereas AD patients showed a non-significant 30% reduction of VEN/10 000 NN compared with NDC. VEN reduction was present in all protein pathology subgroups.DiscussionIn conclusion, this study confirms selective sensitivity of VEN in FTD and suggests that VEN loss is an early event in the neurodegenerative process.

Remodeling of dendrites and spines in the C1q knockout model of genetic epilepsy

To determine whether developmental synaptic pruning defects in epileptic C1q-knockout (KO) mice are accompanied by postsynaptic abnormalities in dendrites and/or spines. Immunofluorescence staining was performed on biocytin-filled layer Vb pyramidal neurons in sensorimotor cortex. Basal dendritic arbors and their spines were reconstructed with NEUROLUCIDA software, and their morphologic characteristics were quantitated in Neuroexplorer. Seven to nine completely filled pyramidal neurons were analyzed from the wild-type (WT) and C1q KO groups. Compared to WT controls, KO mice showed significant structural modifications in their basal dendrites including (1) higher density of dendritic spines (0.60 ± 0.03/μm vs. 0.49 ± 0.03/μm dendritic length in WT, p < 0.05); (2) remarkably increased occurrence of thin spines (0.26 ± 0.02/μm vs. 0.14 ± 0.02/μm dendritic length in control, p < 0.01); (3) longer dendritic length (2,680 ± 159 μm vs. 2,119 ± 108 μm in control); and (4) increased branching (22.6 ± 1.9 vs. 16.2 ± 1.3 in WT at 80 μm from soma center, p < 0.05; 12.4 ± 1.4 vs. 8.2 ± 0.6 in WT at 120 μm from soma center, respectively, p < 0.05). Dual immunolabeling demonstrated the expression of putative glutamate receptor 2 (GluR2) on some thin spines. These dendritic alterations are likely postsynaptic structural consequences of failure of synaptic pruning in the C1q KO mice. Failure to prune excessive excitatory synapses in C1q KO mice is a likely mechanism underlying abnormalities in postsynaptic dendrites, including increased branching and alterations in spine type and density. It is also possible that seizure activity contributes to these abnormalities. These structural abnormalities, together with increased numbers of excitatory synapses, likely contribute to epileptogenesis in C1q KO mice.

Lmo4 Establishes Rostral Motor Cortex Projection Neuron Subtype Diversity

The mammalian neocortex is parcellated into anatomically and functionally distinct areas. The establishment of area-specific neuronal diversity and circuit connectivity enables distinct neocortical regions to control diverse and specialized functional outputs, yet underlying molecular controls remain largely unknown. Here, we identify a central role for the transcriptional regulator Lim-only 4 (Lmo4) in establishing the diversity of neuronal subtypes within rostral mouse motor cortex, where projection neurons have particularly diverse and multi-projection connectivity compared with caudal motor cortex. In rostral motor cortex, we report that both subcerebral projection neurons (SCPN), which send projections away from the cerebrum, and callosal projection neurons (CPN), which send projections to contralateral cortex, express Lmo4, whereas more caudal SCPN and CPN do not. Lmo4-expressing SCPN and CPN populations are comprised of multiple hodologically distinct subtypes. SCPN in rostral layer Va project largely to brainstem, whereas SCPN in layer Vb project largely to spinal cord, and a subset of both rostral SCPN and CPN sends second ipsilateral caudal (backward) projections in addition to primary projections. Without Lmo4 function, the molecular identity of neurons in rostral motor cortex is disrupted and more homogenous, rostral layer Va SCPN aberrantly project to the spinal cord, and many dual-projection SCPN and CPN fail to send a second backward projection. These molecular and hodological disruptions result in greater overall homogeneity of motor cortex output. Together, these results identify Lmo4 as a central developmental control over the diversity of motor cortex projection neuron subpopulations, establishing their area-specific identity and specialized connectivity.