Lawra District Research Articles

Gender Related Issues and Ecosystem Service Utilization Within the Volta Basin: Field Level Qualitative Experiences

Ecosystem services are considered as essential factors to determine the quality of the wellbeing of populations. This research paper focuses on establishing the contributions of ecosystem services in ensuring food security and its subsequent impact on the socio-economic wellbeing of both men and women within the Volta Basin and what accounts for unequal access to ecosystem services by men and women. It also identifies the socio-cultural issues on ecosystem utilization within the given area. The approach employed for the gathering of data for this study was multi-disciplinary and local knowledge centered. Focus Group Discussions, household surveys, stakeholder consultative meetings, seminars and workshops and biophysical observations were the methods and tools employed in obtaining the needed data. Communities selected within the Volta Basin comprised Bawku West (Kokori through Aring to Binaba), Namdan District (from Sakote through Pelungu to Damolgo), Jirapa District (from Tuggo through Konzokala to Wulling) and Lawra District (from Dasuuri through Eramon Tangzu to Bompari). Findings from the study revealed that communities within the area of study relied on natural and human modified ecosystems to sustain and maintain human lives. The findings however established that traditional laws often provided land for women, wives, and widows through means other than, for instance, equal land shares on inheritance. Systemic gender biases existed in the form of customs, beliefs, attitudes and laws that confined women to cultivating some type of crops within the study communities. Also, most communities have lost their livestock as a result of theft and some farm fields have been destroyed by cattle grazing, making it difficult to access organic manure for farming resulting in the use of chemical fertilizer. Therefore, to ensure positive contribution of the ecosystems to food security, the study recommends that government should create regulations that strengthen tenure security in the majority of the studied locations. Also, efforts should be made to document and publicize benefits of gender inclusion in ecosystem service utilization. Studies should also be conducted on human attitudes and perceptions regarding ecosystem services as a tool for understanding the complex problems associated with environmental change in the context of cultural landscapes. Promote joint planning and consensus building with Fulani, farmers, decision makers and livestock owners to help solve the issue on livestock theft and over grazing.

Evaluation of pilot implementation of seasonal malaria chemoprevention on morbidity in young children in Northern Sahelian Ghana

BackgroundIn Sahelian Africa, the risk of malaria increases with the arrival of the rains, particularly in young children. Following successful trials, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended the use of seasonal malaria chemoprevention (SMC) in areas with seasonal peak in malaria cases. This study evaluated the pilot implementation of SMC in Northern Ghana.MethodsFourteen communities each serving as clusters were selected randomly from Lawra District of Upper West Region as intervention area and West Mamprusi District in the Northern Region as the non-intervention area. The intervention was undertaken by the National Malaria Control Programme in collaboration with regional health directorates using sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine plus amodiaquine and standard WHO protocols. Before and after surveys for malaria parasitaemia and haemoglobin levels as well as monitoring for malaria morbidity and mortality were undertaken.ResultsAt the end of the intervention, participant retention was 92.9% (697/731) and 89.5% (634/708) in the intervention and the non-intervention areas, respectively. The proportion of children with asexual parasites reduced by 19% (p = 0.000) in the intervention and increased by 12% (p = 0.000) in the non-intervention area. Incidence rates of severe malaria were 10 and 20 per 1000 person-years follow up in the intervention and comparison areas, respectively with P.E of 45% (p = 0.62). For mild malaria, it was 220 and 170 per 1000 person-years in intervention and comparison area, respectively with PE of - 25% (p = 0.31). The proportion of children with anaemia defined as Hb< 11.0 g/dl reduced from 14.2% (52.8–38.6%) in the intervention area as compared to an increase of 8.1% (54.5% to 62.6) the non-intervention arm, Mean Hb reduced by 0. 24 g/dl (p = 0.000) in the non-intervention area and increased of 0.39 g/dl (p = 000) in the intervention area.ConclusionsThe feasibility and effectiveness of SMC introduction in Northern Ghana was demonstrated as evidenced by high study retention, reduction in malaria parasitaemia and anaemia during the wet season.

How do land tenure arrangements influence adaptive responses of farmers? A study of crop farmers from semi-arid Ghana

This study investigated land tenure potential to influence farmers’ adaptive responses to climate change. A quantitative approach was employed to determine how crop farmers’ farmland tenure arrangements influence their adaptive responses to climate change impacts in the Lawra District of semi-arid north western Ghana. Field data were gathered from 248 farming households between January and May, 2017 through a multi-stage sampling procedure. About 55.2%, 45.6%, 44.4%, 80.6% and 64.5% of the farmers adopted early maturing crop varieties, zai farming techniques, agroforestry, crop rotation and adjustment in planting dates respectively as adaptive choices to the impacts of climate change. Binary logistic regression models showed that farmland size, years of land occupancy or usage, method of land acquisition and perceived level of farmland tenure security significantly (p ≤ 0.05) influenced farmers adaptive responses. We recommend that, government and non-governmental organizations should always consider farmers land tenure arrangements particularly regarding how they access or acquire their farmlands, the size of their farmlands and how they perceive the tenure security of those lands in the design and implementation of adaptation policies and programmes targeted at farmers so as to enhance sustainable adaptation.

Comparative assessment of vulnerability of smallholder livestock farmers to climate change in North-West Ghana

ABSTRACT This study examined the vulnerability of smallholder livestock farmers in North-West Ghana to climate change using data obtained from 200 livestock farmers obtained through the administration of a semi-structured questionnaire. The Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) approach was used to examine the levels of vulnerability. The study compared the vulnerability between the Nandom district and the Lawra district. The empirical results revealed that livestock farmers are more vulnerable to climatic extremes in the Nandom district than the Lawra district. The study highlights the critical role of the government regarding education and construction of water resources, among others.

Barriers to early infant diagnosis of HIV in the Wa Municipality and Lawra District of Upper West Region, Ghana

We identified socio-demographic, health system and psycho-social barriers to Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) of HIV in the Upper West Region of Ghana. An unmatched case control study of 96 cases and 96 controls was conducted in the ART centers in Lawra district and Wa Municipality between December 2014 and April 2015. A public health facility. We defined a case as an HIV positive mother with an exposed infant who received EID service between January 2011 and December 2014. A control was defined as HIV Positive Mother with an exposed infant who did not receive EID services between January 2011 and December 2014. EID by dry blood spot Deoxyribonucleic acid Polymerase chain reaction. A total of 192 mother-infant pairs were assessed. The mean age of infants at testing for cases was 17.3±14.9 weeks. Mother-to-child-transmission-rate was 2.3%. Factors associated with EID testing included: mother being formally employed (cOR=2.0: 95%CI:1.1-3.8), maternal formal education (cOR=2.0, 95%CI: 1.1-3.6) and maternal independent source of income (cOR 2.2, 95%CI 1.2-4.1). After adjusting for confounders, maternal independent income source was associated with EID testing (aOR 2.2, 95%CI 1.2-4.1). Median turn-around time of EID result was 11 weeks (IQR 4-27 weeks). Women need to be empowered to gain an independent source of income. This can help maximize the benefits of e-MTCT and increase EID in the Upper West Region of Ghana. This work was funded by the authors.

Prevalence and determinants of essential newborn care practices in the Lawra District of Ghana

BackgroundThere was less than satisfactory progress, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, towards child and maternal mortality targets of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 4 and 5. The main aim of this study was to describe the prevalence and determinants of essential new newborn care practices in the Lawra District of Ghana.MethodsA cross-sectional study was carried out in June 2014 on a sample of 422 lactating mothers and their children aged between 1 and 12 months. A systematic random sampling technique was used to select the study participants who attended post-natal clinic in the Lawra district hospital.ResultsOf the 418 newborns, only 36.8% (154) was judged to have had safe cord care, 34.9% (146) optimal thermal care, and 73.7% (308) were considered to have had adequate neonatal feeding. The overall prevalence of adequate new born care comprising good cord care, optimal thermal care and good neonatal feeding practices was only 15.8%.Mothers who attained at least Senior High Secondary School were 20.5 times more likely to provide optimal thermal care [AOR 22.54; 95% CI (2.60–162.12)], compared to women had no formal education at all. Women who received adequate ANC services were 4.0 times (AOR = 4.04 [CI: 1.53, 10.66]) and 1.9 times (AOR = 1.90 [CI: 1.01, 3.61]) more likely to provide safe cord care and good neonatal feeding as compared to their counterparts who did not get adequate ANC. However, adequate ANC services was unrelated to optimal thermal care.Compared to women who delivered at home, women who delivered their index baby in a health facility were 5.6 times more likely of having safe cord care for their babies (AOR = 5.60, Cl: 1.19–23.30), p = 0.03.ConclusionsThe coverage of essential newborn care practices was generally low. Essential newborn care practices were positively associated with high maternal educational attainment, adequate utilization of antenatal care services and high maternal knowledge of newborn danger signs. Therefore, greater improvement in essential newborn care practices could be attained through proven low-cost interventions such as effective ANC services, health and nutrition education that should span from community to health facility levels.

A Review of Determinants of Low Measles Immunization and Feasible Interventions to Increase Uptake among Children Aged 9-59 months in the Lawra District, Ghana

Vaccine preventable diseases contribute to about 20% of all under-five deaths globally. Annually, about 10% of un-immunized children die of measles globally. Developing countries continue to experience frequent Measles outbreaks despite numerous preventive measures. Measles is one of the vaccine preventable diseases targeted by the World Health Organization for elimination by 2020. Measles remains the top killer among children in SubSaharan Africa despite global progress to eliminate the disease through vaccination. Even though there is a vaccine against this disease, most countries still report low measles immunization coverages. The main aim of this review is to analyse the determinants of low measles uptake in Lawra district and recommend appropriate measures to solve this problem. An in-depth review was conducted using literature, both peer-reviewed and grey literature from 2000. The literature was retrieved from databases (PubMed, Global health, Popline) and also through the Google scholar search engine. A conceptual framework was adapted to guide the analysis of the factors affecting measles immunization coverage in Lawra district. Inadequate data from the district for comparison was a major limitation and thus further research is recommended. Out of the ninety five studies (95) that met the inclusion criteria, 85 (89%) were peer reviewed. The main factors influencing low measles immunization coverage in Lawra include the quality of immunization services, attitude of health workers, inaccessibility to services and the social class of the caregivers. Feasible intervention strategies recommended include mass media, home visits, effective supervision and partnership between the health system and the communities.

Assessing the knowledge of expectant mothers on mother\u2013to-child transmission of viral hepatitis B in Upper West region of Ghana

BackgroundViral Hepatitis B is of a major public health concern globally, especially in developing countries. Expectant mothers’ knowledge of Mother-To-Child Transmission (MTCT) of the disease is significant in preventing the spread from an infected mother to her child. This study sought to assess the expectant mothers’ knowledge of Mother-To-Child Transmission of viral hepatitis B in the Wa Municipality and Lawra District of Upper West Region, Ghana.MethodsA descriptive cross-sectional study with a multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select a total of 450 study respondents (expectant mothers), and a semi-structured questionnaire was used for the data collection. Respondents were interviewed using face-to-face interview technique.ResultsMajority (54.0%) of the respondents were aged between 25 and 35 years and the results were similar in both districts. Overall, 62.4% (281/450) of the respondents had at least Junior High level education, and 76.2% (343/450) were multigravida. Educational levels among respondents in the two areas were above 50.0% and considered relatively high. Respondents’ general knowledge of hepatitis B infection and disease was 46.0% (208/450). However, there was a slight difference between the two districts (40.1% in Lawra District and 51.6% in Wa Municipality). The overall knowledge level on MTCT of viral hepatitis B among the respondents was 34.7% (156/450): the Wa Municipality recorded higher knowledge (43.3%) compared to 24.8% in Lawra District.ConclusionThe knowledge level of the expectant mothers on MTCT of viral hepatitis B is relatively low in Upper West Region, Ghana. Majority of the respondents had some form of formal education. The age, marital status, education, occupation, gravity and family setup were found to be associated with knowledge of Hepatitis B infection and MTCT. Thus, there is urgent need to intensify efforts of health staff to educate expectant mothers. In addition, home education and outreach activities should be intensified on HBV infection as well as MTCT. Consequently, planning, implementation and execution of preventive activities, especially in the antenatal clinics should critically consider the social and demographic variations of mothers.

Climate Change and Rural Livelihoods in the Lawra District of Ghana. A Qualitative Based Study

Climate change is a growing threat to the world's poorest and most vulnerable living in rural areas. The impacts of climate change challenge efforts to reducing poverty and hence, will require new approaches to focus development programming on the changing realities of the world. Understanding how the impacts of climate change affect the people, and their knowledge and experience in coping with it will assist in identifying appropriate strategies for adaptation to it. This paper thus examined the impacts of climate change on livelihoods of rural communities in the Upper West region of Ghana and the challenges posed to efforts at reducing poverty in the area. Discussions on vulnerability to climate variability and adaptation issues in this paper focused on evidence observed by 10 communities in the Lawra District. Adopting a qualitative approach, ten focused group discussions were organized to gather data. Specific issues discussed surrounded evidence of climate change in the communities, its impacts, underlying causes of vulnerability to climate and coping strategies employed by community members. Based on the discussions, the paper recommends the need to develop and intensify effective institutional mechanisms to facilitate community adaptation measures, awareness raising (creation) on anti-environments practices in communities, institution of bye and customary laws to regulate human anti-environmental activities, and the implementation of adaptation projects to aid communities cope with the major impacts of climate change in the district and world at large.

Determinants of Farmers’ Climate Risk Perceptions in Agriculture—A Rural Ghana Perspective

This study evaluates the socio-economic predictors of farmers’ perceptions about climate risk in agriculture. The levels of risk perception among different farmers’ wealth groups are also investigated. A total of 100 farmers in the Lawra district of Ghana are randomly selected and interviewed. Data is obtained through the use of semi-structured questionnaires and focus group discussions. A climate risk perception index (CRPI) is derived and applied to assess the degree of perceived risk among different wealth groups of farmers. The linear regression model is also used to analyze the data. The results showed that 93% of farmers have perceived climate risk while 7% are not sure if they have perceived it. Results of the CRPI showed that resource-poor farmers are concerned about climate risk on agricultural production, while resource-moderate and resource-rich farmers are concerned about risk impacts on climatic variables, and health and socio-economy, respectively. Results of the regression model showed that education, age, a perceived increase in human disease and mortality, and a decrease in food security and incomes are predictors of risk perception. The policy implication of this study is that predictors of farmers’ climate risk perception should be factored into climate change risk communication in order to boost awareness and adaptation to climate change.

Developing indicators for adaptation decision-making under climate change in agriculture: A proposed evaluation model

This study proposes a new approach to developing a set of indicators for evaluating, prioritizing and choosing adaptation practices to climate change in agriculture. A simulation process is further conducted by applying the proposed indicators and the AHP model to prioritize adaptation alternatives to drought conditions. Data are collected through semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, face- to-face interviews and literature review. Based on the focus group discussions, a six-step process is derived for use in developing indicators. A total of seventeen indictors are developed and classified into two broad components; feasibility and effectiveness (eight and nine indicators, respectively). The simulation results show that irrigation and drought- tolerant varieties are most feasible and effective alternative adaptation practices to drought in the Lawra district of Ghana. The proposed indicators are expected to provide a useful tool for supporting the decision-making process of stakeholders in the agriculture sector under climate change conditions.

Caregivers Knowledge, Attitude and Practices on Child Growth Monitoring and Promotion Activities in Lawra District, Upper West Region of Ghana

<i>Background</i>: Growth monitoring and promotion (GMP) activities serve as an important platform for the implementation of child survival interventions to reduce malnutrition, infectious diseases and death among children. In recent times, there has been a steady decline in GMP outcome indicators in the Lawra district. The appropriate practices of GMP help in improving knowledge, attitudes and practices of caregivers towards child nutrition and health. Therefore, this study seeks to assess knowledge, attitude and practices of growth monitoring and promotion and associated factors among caregivers. <i>Methods</i>: A descriptive cross-sectional study design was used to study 300 caregivers’. Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select the participants. A semi-structured questionnaire applying face to face interview approach was used to collect data from participants. Descriptive statistics and associations between dependent and independent variables were done using Pearson chi-square and logistic regression analysis. <i>Results</i>: The results indicated 53% of the caregivers’ with good (high) knowledge in Growth Monitoring and Promotion (GMP) activities, 98% with good (high) attitudes towards GMP activities and 70% with good (high) practices in GMP. Also, 16.2% of caregivers’ children had faltered in growth. Occupation was associated with knowledge (<i>p</i>=.013), and attitude (<i>p</i>=.014). Again, educational status (<i>p</i>=.026) was associated with knowledge in GMP, marital status (<i>p</i>=.009) and child relation with caregiver (<i>p</i>=.021) were associated with attitude in GMP. Also tribe (<i>p</i>=.019) and child relation with caregiver (<i>p</i>=.019) were significantly associated with practices in GMP. Conclusions: Notwithstanding the achievement in the coverage of GMP, implementation of Infant and Young Child Feeding (IYCF) program and Information, Education and Communication (IE&C) activities in district, the findings on GMP outcome (knowledge and practice) is not satisfactorily. District Health Directorate need to intensify and strengthen IYCF activities, home visits, health education, and growth monitoring and promotion services.

Determinants of farmers’ adaptation to climate change: A micro level analysis in Ghana

This study analyzed socio-economic factors that influence farmers’ adaptation to climate change in agriculture. Perceptions regarding long-term changes in climate variables and the rate of occurrence of weather extremes were also investigated. Additionally, farmers’ perceived barriers to the use of adaptation practices were identified and ranked. A total of 100 farm-households were randomly selected from four communities in the Lawra district of Ghana and data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires, focused group discussions and field observations. A logistic regression model and weighted average index were used to analyze the data. The results showed that 87 % of respondents perceived a decrease in rainfall amount, while 82 % perceived an increase in temperature over the past 10 years. Results of the weighted average index indicate that dry spell and drought have a higher annual rate of occurrence than flood. Empirical results of the logistic regression model showed that education, household size, annual household income, access to information, credit and membership of farmer-based organization are the most important factors that influence farmers’ adaptation to climate change. The main constraints on adaptation include unpredictability of weather, high farm input cost, lack of access to timely weather information and water resources. The policy implication of this study is that governments should mainstream barriers to, and choice factors of, adaptation practices to climate change related projects and programs.

Land Degradation Management in the Lawra District of Ghana: Present Practices and Opportunities for Rural Farmers in Semi-Arid Areas

This study contends that land degradation is depriving rural farmers and other agriculture-dependent poor people in semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan Africa of their traditional means of sustainable livelihood. The study sought to assess present trends in land degradation and management practices and examine the potential for redress based on the perspective of rural farmers in the Lawra District of the Upper West Region of Ghana. Using a mixed-method approach, the study revealed that inappropriate land use practices, such as bush burning, over cultivation and tree cutting, are taking over the resources of the ecosystems of the community, thereby affecting sustainable means of crop production. The study points out that interventions targeted at improving land productivity for livelihood improvement in the study area are producing positive results and recommends scaling up interventions by refocusing attention on inappropriate land use practices that frequently lead to land degradation.

Farmers’ Perceptions about Adaptation Practices to Climate Change and Barriers to Adaptation: A Micro-Level Study in Ghana

This study analyzed the farmer-perceived importance of adaptation practices to climate change and examined the barriers that impede adaptation. Perceptions about causes and effects of long-term changes in climatic variables were also investigated. A total of 100 farmer-households were randomly selected from four communities in the Lawra district of Ghana. Data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires and focus group discussions (FGDs). The results showed that 87% of respondents perceived a decrease in rainfall amount, while 82% perceived an increase in temperature over the past 10 years. The study revealed that adaptation was largely in response to dry spells and droughts (93.2%) rather than floods. About 67% of respondents have adjusted their farming activities in response to climate change. Empirical results of the weighted average index analysis showed that farmers ranked improved crop varieties and irrigation as the most important adaptation measures. It also revealed that farmers lacked the capacity to implement the highly ranked adaptation practices. The problem confrontation index analysis showed that unpredictable weather, high cost of farm inputs, limited access to weather information, and lack of water resources were the most critical barriers to adaptation. This analysis of adaptation practices and constraints at farmer level will help facilitate government policy formulation and implementation.

The Socio-Cultural Significance of the Kakube Festival of the Dagara of Nandom Traditional Area in Ghana

The advent of western civilization has had a downturn on many important cultural practices of the people in Sub-Saharan Africa. Understandably so, a form of reawakening in recent times has led to people going back to their roots to rediscover what their forebears ‘executed’ with passion. This paper generally explores the importance of local events such as the festivals which bring people together to celebrate a common heritage. It finally narrowed in on the people of Nandom who trace their roots to a common ancestor and as such make feverish attempts aimed at ensuring that an annual affair (Kakube) comes into fruition. Data was sourced from key personalities in the community making use of both simple random and purposive sampling techniques and further employing data collection methods such as administration of questionnaire, in-depth interviews (IDI) including personal observation and participation. In all, 250 people responded to the questionnaire. The analysis revealed that the people of the area benefited socially, culturally, economically, politically, religiously and developmentally hence their adherence to this heritage. The paper recommends that the Nandom Traditional Council,the Lawra District Assembly, the local business community, the Ghana Tourism Authority andcivil society organisations should help in its promotion both nationally and internationally.KEYWORDS: Kakube festival, tourism, cultural heritage, tradition, dimension,

Financial and social impact of microcredit on women beneficiaries in Ghana

This paper explored the financial and social impact of microcredit on women beneficiaries in the Lawra District of the Upper West Region of Ghana. The main objective of the study was to investigate the impact of microcredit on women beneficiaries compared with non-beneficiaries. The study was both quantitative and qualitative and made use of both primary and secondary data. The entire sample size of the study was 90 beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries. The study found that microcredit has a significant impact on the entire well being of women beneficiaries and their households compared with non-beneficiaries. The credit has enabled women beneficiaries to improve on their monthly and yearly income, access healthcare, educate their children in schools and enhanced their decision making capabilities and self-confidence compared with the controlled group. The study made some recommendations to MFIs and governments to formulate policies that will enhance access to microcredit.

‘A Man Of Great Foresight’: S. W. D. K. Gandah’s History Of Birifu Naa Gandah (CA. 1872−1950): Editor’s Introduction

'A man of great foresight' : this is how S. W. D. K. Gandah chose to sum up his father, Birifu Naa Gandah I, an influential chief in Lawra District in what is today North-Western Ghana. Born around 1872, like many young men in the villages at the time, he was raised to become a farmer, herdsman and hunter. In 1917, Gandah - or, to be precise : Gandah-yir, literally 'the house of the brave', as his father called him - was enskinned as chief of Birifu and its satellite settlements and came to play an important role in the Lawra Confederacy Native Authority. He was in many respects what we could call a 'modernising' chief. He cooperated closely with the colonial authorities and successfully organised his subjects to perform the required road labour, pay taxes and provide soldiers for recruitment, assisted authorities in controlling the spread of disease amongst livestock and humans, and greatly supported the establishment of the first school in Lawra District.

Evaluation of Bednets After 38 Months of Household Use in Northwest Ghana

A total of 255 bednets were collected 38 months after distribution in Lawra District of northwest Ghana to examine their physical condition and residual insecticide levels. Physical condition varied from nearly pristine to highly damaged. In 50 selected nets, 2023 holes > or = 0.5 cm and 31 holes > or = 10 cm were counted. The incidence of holes increases toward the bottom edge of the net. Seam failures were found in 50% of the nets. Repairs, mostly sewn, were evident in 64% of the nets. Using a combination of bromine x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry, high-pressure liquid chromatography, and cone bioassays, it was determined that 14.9% of the nets had retained full insecticidal strength. These results highlight the value of real-world data on bednet longevity to guide decisions regarding mosquito control strategies, bednet purchasing, frequency of bednet replacement, and product development.

The language policy practice in mathematics education in the upper west region of Ghana

Using Teacher's Assessment of Language Policy Practices (TAL2P) questionnaire and unstructured interview schedules, 63 randomly selected teachers (39 females, 24 males) from 21 schools within the Lawra District of the Upper West Region of Ghana were examined to determine the extent to which the language policy was practised. The study showed that teachers teach between 30-46% of their mathematics lesson periods in English at the lower primary level. Efforts to use the native language for meaningful mathematics instructions are constrained by teachers' inability to speak the language and the lack of materials in the native language. For children to derive the benefits of the language policy, the study recommends taking teachers linguistic competence into consideration during teacher postings and an urgent provision of text materials in the native languages to serve as resource materials for teachers. African Journal of Educational Studies in Mathematics and Sciences Vol. 2(1) 2004: 27-38