State Law Research Articles

An absolutely convergent fixed-point fast sweeping WENO method on triangular meshes for steady state of hyperbolic conservation laws

High order accuracy fast sweeping methods have been developed in the literature to efficiently solve steady state solutions of hyperbolic partial differential equations (PDEs) on rectangular meshes, while they were not available yet on unstructured meshes. In this paper, we extend high order accuracy fast sweeping methods to unstructured triangular meshes by applying fixed-point iterative sweeping techniques to a fifth-order finite volume unstructured WENO scheme, for solving steady state solutions of hyperbolic conservation laws. Similar as other fast sweeping methods, fixed-point fast sweeping methods use the Gauss-Seidel iterations and alternating sweeping strategy to cover characteristics of hyperbolic PDEs in each sweeping order to achieve fast convergence rate to steady state solutions. An advantage of fixed-point fast sweeping methods which distinguishes them from other fast sweeping methods is that they are explicit and do not require inverse operation of nonlinear local systems. This also provides certain convenience in designing high order fast sweeping methods on unstructured meshes. As in the first order fast sweeping methods on triangular meshes, we introduce multiple reference points to determine alternating sweeping directions on unstructured meshes. All the cells on the mesh are ordered according to their centroids' distances to those reference points, and the resulted orderings provide sweeping directions for iterations. To make the residue of the fast sweeping iterations converge to machine zero / round off errors, we follow the approach in our early work of developing the absolutely convergent fixed-point fast sweeping WENO methods on rectangular meshes, and adopt high order WENO scheme with unequal-sized sub-stencils, specifically here a fifth-order finite volume unstructured WENO scheme for spatial discretization. Extensive numerical experiments, including problems with complex domain geometries, are performed to show the accuracy, computational efficiency, and absolute convergence of the presented fifth-order fast sweeping scheme on triangular meshes. Furthermore, the proposed method is compared with the forward Euler time marching method and the popular third order total variation diminishing Rung-Kutta (TVD-RK3) time-marching method for steady state computations. Numerical examples show that the developed fixed-point fast sweeping WENO method is the most efficient scheme among them, and especially it can save up to 70% CPU time costs than TVD-RK3 in order to converge to steady state solutions.

Hambatan Pemberian Restitusi Bagi Anak Korban Pencabulan Dalam Putusan Nomor 133/Pid.Sus/2023/PN. Skt

With the times, the modus operandi of crime has also evolved. It’s characterized by crime victims who are currently not only limited to adults, but children are also often victims. One of the crimes that often befall children is sexual abuse. Indonesia as a state of law has attempted to protect children from crime, for example by establishing laws and regulations. One form of protection is by providing rights for child victims of criminal acts, one of which is the right to restitution. However, in practice, the provision of restitution hasn’t t been optimally implemented. The purpose of this research is to find out the causes of the provision of restitution that hasn’t been optimally implemented, especially in the case of Decision Number 133/Pid.Sus/2023/PN. This research uses empirical legal research methods with interview data collection techniques. Based on the results of the research, there are two factors that become obstacles in providing restitution for child victims. First, internal factors in the form of the absence of coercive rules if the perpetrator doesn’t pay restitution, administrative requirements for submitting restitution requests that burden the victim, and there are no rules that guarantee restitution is immediately paid by the perpetrator. Second, external factors in the form of the victim's lack of legal awareness and still focusing on punishing the perpetrator.

The Impact of New Jersey's 2020 E-Cigarette Flavor Ban on E-Cigarette, Cigarette, and Cigar Sales in NJ.

On April 20, 2020, New Jersey (NJ) implemented a comprehensive ban on the sale of flavored e-cigarettes. This study compares sales of e-cigarettes, cigarettes, and cigars before and after the law. Data were biweekly retailer scanner sales in NJ convenience stores for e-cigarettes, cigarettes, and cigars between August 2019 and December 2020. We used Joinpoint regression to assess sales trends for cigarettes (non-menthol, menthol), cigars (unflavored, flavored), and e-cigarettes (unflavored, fruit/sweet/concept flavor, menthol flavor) in the 36 weeks before and 36 weeks after a statewide ban on flavored e-cigarettes. Flavored e-cigarette sales, not including menthol, significantly decreased over the study period while menthol e-cigarette sales significantly increased until the e-cigarette flavor ban took effect, after which these sales rapidly declined through May 2020, then slowed. Unflavored e-cigarette sales declined through September 2019, then grew modestly until the flavored e-cigarette ban, after which sales significantly increased. Flavored cigar sales increased between March and May 2020, then declined; non-flavored cigar sales increased between mid-February and early July 2020, then declined. Cigarette sales were decreasing before the flavored e-cigarette ban but after, significantly increased until June 2020. Overall, there was no significant trend in the average biweekly percent change for cigarette sales. Flavored e-cigarette sales were declining prior to the ban but the pace of the decline accelerated following federal and state restrictions on flavored e-cigarette sales, then slowed by the second half of 2020, with a brief period of increased cigarette and cigar sales immediately following the ban. New Jersey's 2020 statewide e-cigarette flavor ban offered the opportunity to observe how sales of e-cigarette, cigarette, and cigar products shifted after the change. The effect of the state law, at least in the short-term, was decreased sales of flavored e-cigarettes and increased sales of unflavored e-cigarettes. Research on long term policy effects is needed.

Cyber Security and Legal Protection for Dropshipping Transactions in Indonesia: between State Law and Islamic Law

This study aims to explain the cybersecurity and legal protection of dropshipping transactions from the Indonesian and Islamic economic law perspective. The normative and comparative judicial approaches were applied to achieve the research objectives. Descriptive and prospective analysis methods are used, and data are collected through primary and secondary sources. The findings revealed that despite the continuous growth of dropshipping contracts, Indonesia has no direct laws and regulations that particularly deal with the dropshipping mechanism and provide this cyber security to the system. In Islam, the dropshipping mechanism is linked with three types of contracts: Salam, Samsarah, and Wakalah. However, each type carries certain limitations as per Islamic/Sharia principles. Simultaneously, along with the cyber security laws available in financial transactions, the Islamic Fatwa can be regarded as a guide for dealing with dropshipping agreements and preventing cyber security. Furthermore, considering the increasing trend of dropshipping businesses, which is beneficial for the economic system, the existing cybersecurity laws and regulations must be amended to explicitly cover drop-shipping mechanisms.

Cross-sectional study of association between caries and fluoridated water among third-grade students in Pennsylvania

BackgroundCaries is the most common chronic disease among children. In Pennsylvania, a comprehensive oral health Basic Screening Survey and assessment of the association between caries and community water fluoridation (CWF) among children have not been conducted. MethodsFrom 2021 through 2022, the first Basic Screening Survey was conducted among third-grade students in Pennsylvania. Oral health and demographic data were collected. CWF data were provided by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. The relative risk of developing caries in association with CWF was assessed using the GENMOD procedure in SAS, Version 9.4 (SAS Institute) in this cross-sectional study. ResultsCaries prevalence was 59.7% among 4,120 screened students. Participation in the free or reduced lunch program and CWF were each significantly associated with risk of developing caries after adjustment for age, sex, and race and ethnicity. The risk of developing caries was 33% higher among students who participated in the free or reduced lunch program than those who did not participate (relative risk, 1.33; 95% CI, 1.24 to 1.42). Students with the highest CWF coverage had a nearly 16% lower risk of developing caries than those without CWF coverage (relative risk, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.75 to 0.94). ConclusionsCWF was significantly associated with a reduced risk of developing caries. Efforts are needed to increase CWF coverage, along with promotion of oral health education and healthy dietary habits among Pennsylvania children. Practical ImplicationsIncreasing CWF coverage will reduce caries burden among Pennsylvania children. Although Pennsylvania has no state laws to regulate CWF, these findings are persuasive for local municipalities to consider expanding CWF coverage.

Legal Case Study of Severe IVF Incidents Worldwide: Causes, Consequences, and High Emotional, Financial, and Reputational Costs to Patients and Providers

Background In light of the changing legislative and regulatory landscape concerning reproductive rights and fertility treatments worldwide and a growing number of patients who use assisted reproductive technology (ART)/in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatments to overcome their reproductive challenges (cancer patients, those needing genetic screening, members of the LGBTQIA+ community, and patients who have trouble conceiving naturally) and achieve their family-building goals, ART/IVF clinics face numerous operational and legal challenges, which come at great emotional, reputational, and financial costs to patients and providers. Objectives Fertility treatment related incidents and resulting legal cases vary in severity, scope, and outcomes. Local legal and regulatory environment for patients and ART/IVF providers increase the complexity. The authors aimed to identify the causes of lawsuits against ART/IVF providers and how legal outcomes varied between cases. Study design The data on U.S. IVF incidents was collected from Lexis Nexis, Westlaw, Bloomberg Law, and CaseLaw databases, newspaper and magazine articles, legal reviews, peer-reviewed journals, and online publications. For international cases, HFEA reports, and industry and online publications were queried. The searches were not time restrained but was carried out from January 2022 to April 2023. RESULTS Two hundred five IVF incidents (84.9% U.S., 2.9% U.K., 12.2% other), excluding large-scale tank and alarm failures and power disruptions, which affected 307 people (79.8%, 3.3%, 16.9%) and/or 258 specimens (84.5%, 2.7%, 12.8%), resulting in 76 lawsuits (65.8%, 7.89%, 26.3%) were identified worldwide, and categorized by error types. Specimen mix-ups were the most prevalent type (95.0%). Meanwhile, ten failed storage and alarm incidents caused most damage, affecting >1800 patients and >8100 specimens, and resulting in 181 initial lawsuits. CONCLUSIONS Overreliance on manual protocols, irregular/skipped audits, and human error were responsible for IVF incidents reviewed. Damaged, destroyed, or lost embryos and embryo transfer to the wrong recipient have lifelong devastating effects on patients, for many of whom IVF was their last chance for parenthood due to cancer treatment, infertility, and/or age. To complicate the cases, embryo mix-ups resulted in custody disputes over the newborn child(ren), as in Manukyan v. CHA Health Systems, and loss of identity in children and parents. U.S. babies born to embryo mix-ups are reunited with their genetic parents, following the legal precedent of Perry-Rogers v. Fasano. Many countries, however, grant the custody of the child(ren) to birth parents. Most lawsuits were dismissed or settled. The combination of changing abortion and personhood laws in several states of the US can further complicate the issue, as they might put patients and providers in legal jeopardy, following routine ART/IVF procedures. This may include preimplantation genetic testing, short- and long-term embryo storage, and embryo disposal. These state laws will limit patient options and restrict ART/IVF clinic operations. Owing to all these factors, in this study, we can only make educated estimates about the true scope of the issue and its financial cost to ART/IVF providers, which might range from thousands to millions of USD. Lawsuits also come at a great reputational cost for patients, their families and providers, so the latter might benefit from embracing digitization of records, automation, robotics, and AI as a standard of care in their practice.

THE ORIGIN OF THE INSTITUTE OF INDETERMINATE SENTENCES IN SOVIET LEGISLATION 1918-1921

Based on various sources, the author of this article explores the process of the emergence of the institution of indeterminate sentences in Soviet legislation. Its American and European roots are revealed, reflected in the legislation of individual countries, discus sions on the issue of indeterminate sentences at international conferences and congresses. Also considered is the scientific position of prerevolutionary Russian scientists in relation to indeterminate sentences. Some of prerevolutionary scientists were in the public service, first during the Provisional Government, and then in the early Soviet period. In this regard, the author explores the specifics of the personnel of the Central Punitive Department of the People’s Commissariat of Justice in the initial period of its activity. It has been established that a number of prominent prerevolutionary criminologists could influence the content of Soviet legislation in terms of introducing elements of indeterminate sentences. In this regard, the first normative acts of the Soviet state of the criminal law and correctional labor industries (1918-1921) are analyzed. The author comes to the conclusion that during the period of the formation of the Soviet state in Russia, important prerequisites were formed for fixing the institution of indeterminate sentences in the legislation. The article may be of interest both for historians of law and for specialists in the field of criminal and penitentiary law.

Абсолютные права и свободы: некоторые проблемы правовой регламентации

The article analyzes scientific opinions on the absolute nature of the fundamental rights and freedoms of human and citizen. The result of the analysis is the conclusion that the basis for distinguishing the constitutional rights and freedoms of human and citizen from absolute and relative rights and freedoms is the legal possibility of restricting them. The norms of the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal constitutional and federal laws governing restrictions on human and civil rights and freedoms in a state of emergency, martial law, and counter-terrorism operation are being investigated. As a result, constitutional personal rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen with signs of an absolute nature are determined. The right to free economic activity (part 1 of article 34) and the right to housing (part 1 of article 40) of the Constitution of the Russian Federation are economic and may be limited in exceptional cases.

Predicting State-Level Firearm Suicide Rates: A Machine Learning Approach Using Public Policy Data

IntroductionOver 40,000 people die by suicide annually in the U.S., and firearms are the most lethal suicide method. There is limited evidence on the effectiveness of many state-level policies on reducing firearm suicide. The objective of this study was to identify public policies that best predict state-level firearm suicide rates. MethodsData from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's WONDER system and the State Firearm Law Database, a longitudinal catalog of 134 firearm safety laws, were analyzed. The analysis included 1,450 observations from 50 states spanning 1991-2019. An ElasticNet regression technique was used to analyze the relationship between the policy variables and firearm suicide rates. Nested cross-validation was performed to tune the model hyperparameters. The study data were collected and analyzed in 2023 and 2024. ResultsThe optimized ElasticNet approach had a mean MSE of 2.07, which was superior to non-regularized and dummy regressor models. The most influential policies for predicting the firearm suicide rate on average included laws requiring firearm dealers that sell handguns to have a state license and laws requiring individuals to obtain a permit to purchase a firearm through an approval process that includes law enforcement, among others. ConclusionsOn average, firearm suicide rates were lower in state-years that had each influential policy active. Notably, these analyses were ecological and non-causal. However, this study was able to use a supervised machine learning approach with inherent feature selection and many policy types to make predictions using unseen data (i.e., balancing Lasso and Ridge regularization penalties).

Unmanned Underwater Vehicles in Crime Detection and Prevention

The relevance of the research is determined by the need to develop effective methods and strategies for the use of modern technologies to ensure the security of marine and underwater facilities in the face of the growing threat of underwater activity, terrorism, and violations of laws at sea. The research aims to analyse and document specific tactical and organisational approaches to the use of unmanned underwater vehicles aimed at increasing the effectiveness of actions related to the detection, investigation, and prevention of underwater crime. Classification, analytical, functional, statistical, and synthesis methods are among the methods used. The research results highlight the global experience of using drones in forensic practice and may serve as a basis for further improvement of legislation in this area. The application of uninhabited underwater vehicles by law enforcement and state bodies in the investigation of criminal offences is considered in the article, and the norms of criminal procedural legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan regulating the use of technical means in criminal proceedings are analysed. The study reveals the lack of comprehensive research on the use of unmanned underwater vehicles as scientific and technical means for the investigation of certain types of criminal cases, such as drug-trafficking and poaching, and offers recommendations on their use to identify and search for evidence in the aquatic environment. This research has a practical value by providing new methodologies and strategies for organisations and law-enforcement agencies in the field of underwater security, contributing to more effective detection, investigation, and prevention of crime in the maritime and underwater domains.

IX Уральский форум конституционалистов: идеи, дискуссии, мнения

The article contains a brief overview of the scientific and practical events of the traditional expert platform for the exchange of ideas on the problems of constitutional law of Russian and foreign scientists and lawyers — the IX Ural Forum of Constitutionalists, organized by the Department of Constitutional Law of the Ural State Law University named after V.F. Yakovlev (Yekaterinburg, October 2–7, 2023).

Between Maroon Tradition and State Law in Jamaica: A Case Study of Challenges to Environmental Governance in a UNESCO World Heritage Site

In the quest for effective environmental governance, the integration of legal and cultural pluralism within conservation strategies emerges as a critical factor, especially in regions marked by rich ethnic diversity and complex historical legacies. This paper explores the symbiotic relationship between state conservation efforts and the engagement of local communities, with a particular focus on the Indigenous Maroon communities in the Blue and John Crow Mountains (BJCMs) of Jamaica. It underscores the imperative of aligning conservation objectives with the aspirations and traditional practices of these communities to foster sustainable ecosystems and safeguard Indigenous autonomy. Central to this discourse is the development of collaborative frameworks that respect and incorporate the legal and cultural dimensions of pluralism, thereby facilitating a co-managed approach to environmental stewardship. This study emphasizes the role of collaboration and trust as pivotal elements in cultivating a mutual understanding of the interdependencies between state law and Indigenous law. This research advocates for a reciprocal exchange of knowledge between the state and community members, aiming to empower the latter with the resources necessary for effective environmental protection while respecting their legal autonomy. This approach not only enhances conservation initiatives overall, but also ensures that these efforts are informed by the rich cultural heritage and traditional ecological knowledge of the Maroon communities. By examining the conservation practices and governance challenges faced by the Maroons in the BJCMs, this paper reveals the nuanced dynamics of implementing state-led conservation laws in areas characterized by cultural and legal pluralism. The findings highlight the necessity for state regulatory frameworks to enable collaborative governance models that complement, rather than undermine, the traditional governance structures of the Maroons. This research contributes to the broader discourse on environmental governance by illustrating the potential of culturally informed conservation strategies to address environmental threats while respecting and reinforcing the social fabric of Indigenous communities.

MORAL ASPECTS OF DUTY AS A VALUE

Law and morality are integral and important components of modern society and play an important role in regulating relations within it. Norms of law and morality are closely intertwined in the process of social regulation, which determines the mutual influence on the essential content of each of them. The interaction of the two categories is reflected in the fact that the law contributes to the realization of moral principles in the minds of all members of society, in turn, under the influence of moral requirements, the law is constantly improved and increases its role as a social regulator of social relations. In addition, the interaction of morality and law is manifested in the fact that today both the national law of most states of the world and international law use such well-known principles as humanism, justice, equality, integrity, which are a reflection of the influence of moral principles on the formation of law in general. In other words, legal norms, in order to ensure the effectiveness of their action, respond to the moral requirements of modern society, reflecting them in their content. It is no less important to pay attention to the implementation of moral aspects in the formulation of legal obligations incumbent on citizens, since the level of their implementation and compliance directly depends on the level of implementation of moral principles and values prevailing in society. Regarding the moral aspects of duty as a value, it is worth noting that the process of formation of a legal duty was closely related to the precepts of morality, which was also reflected in the modern interpretation of duties. That is why we consider it expedient to investigate legal duty as a value for the presence of moral aspects in it and the importance of moral aspects in modern legal duty.

Advocating for Disciplinary Reform Through a Systematic Review of School Discipline Laws and State Guidance Across the United States

We conducted a systematic documentary content analysis of state laws and state education agency (SEA) disciplinary guidance from all 50 states in the United States. We focused on zero tolerance policies, mandates for review of disproportionality in discipline data, the utilization of school resource officers in discipline, corporal punishment, and prevention. Knowledge of practices throughout the United States is critical for school psychologists to advocate for socially just disciplinary practices and reform. Most state laws require zero tolerance practices for weapons and drug related offenses, yet very few mandate zero tolerance for minor offenses such as insubordination or disrespect. Only nine states require SEAs to review data for disproportionality or require school districts to remedy disproportionality when it is present. Eleven states allow for school resource officers to be involved in discipline outside of high-level safety concerns. Additionally, 23 states still allow corporal punishment in schools. Many states offer guidance to districts on the implementation of multitiered systems of support (MTSS), positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS), restorative practices, progressive discipline, and classroom-based interventions. Implications for school psychologists advocating for disciplinary reform at the local, state, and national level will be discussed. Impact Statement The researchers conducted a systematic national content analysis of school discipline laws and SEA guidance documents. We hope that the findings about school disciplinary laws and SEA guidance in each state will assist school psychologists in targeting their advocacy and reform efforts for more equitable and proactive disciplinary practices at the local, state, and national level.

Tax amendments in times of crises in Poland and Czech Republic – selected legal aspects

This publication is a fragment of research within the framework of broadly understood comparative tax law. The aim of this publication is to show the response of both the Polish and Czech legislators to the economic crises causedby the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine. The methodology used in the article is related to the comparative legal method, the historical-descriptive method and the dogmatic method. The methodology in the article is chosen to show if the described different legal solutions may constitute an interesting reference to other EU countries as an example of the possible response to thefuture economic crisis. The purpose of this publication is also to indicate whether the analyzed countries decided to increase or reduce the tax burden and what the effectiveness of the selected legislative actions. In the conclusions, the authors indicate, among others that the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine were for many countries a justification for changes in tax law, but the effectiveness of these actions remains at least questionable. Therefore, from the point of view of fiscal stability, in times of economic crises, appropriate solutions should always refer to the principle of legal certainty and long-termeconomic analysis of the effectiveness of a given amendment. This publication is, therefore, an incentive to reflect on the state of new regulations and conceptsof tax law implemented in response to the economic crisis and constitute an element of a broader discussion on the impact of tax regulations on the behaviour of taxpayers and the state budget.

Unorthodox Alliances at the Margins of the State: Haredi Jews, the Israeli State, and the Collaborative Battle Against Sexual Violence

Over the last decade, ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Jewish society in Israel has witnessed an unprecedented attempt to place sexual violence high on the agenda, calling for concerted communal action and assistance to individuals in need. Based on a long-term anthropological fieldwork, I explore in this article how this revolution from within the Haredi sector catalyzes and is further solidified by unorthodox alliances with various agencies of the Israeli state. By this, I mean a range of pedagogic, discursive, and institutional processes of collaboration and trust-building, established between Haredi community leaders and representatives of the secular Israeli state. These unorthodox alliances constitute a two-way street of communication and adjustment, advancing, on the one hand, the socialization of Haredi populations to state laws, logics, and discourses, and requiring, on the other hand, that the state tailor its services and procedures to exercise culturally sensitive considerations. I analyze the labor invested in these alliances through the framework of “the margins of the state.” I contend that these alliances establish, or at least experiment with, arrangements that may ultimately reconfigure and recalibrate the relationship between the two sides.

A new oculomotor model demystifies "Remarkable Saccades".

Hering's Law of binocular eye movement control guides most oculomotor research and supports diagnosis and treatment of clinical eye misalignment (strabismus). The law states that all eye movements are controlled by a unitary conjugate signal and a unitary vergence signal that sum. Recent evidence of temporally asynchronous inter-eye rotations during vergence (Chandna et al., 2021) challenges the viability of a unitary vergence signal. An alternative theory that might explain these anomalous results posits that the eyes are controlled independently. Yet independent control fails to explain a phenomenon known as "Remarkable Saccades" where an inappropriate saccade occurs from an eye aligned on a target during asymmetric vergence (Enright, 1992). We introduce a new model formulated to describe the Chandna et al. (2021) midline vergence result that generates remarkable saccades as an emergent property. The Hybrid Binocular Control model incorporates independent controllers for each eye with a cortical origin that interact with a unitary conjugate controller residing in brainstem. The model also accounts for behavioral variations in remarkable saccades when observers attend to an eye. Furthermore, it suggests more generally how the eyes are controlled during vergence and other voluntary eye movements, thus challenging documented oculomotor neural circuitry and suggesting that refinements are needed for clinical oculomotor interventions.

Progress in Legal Research on Pet Animal Protection Issues

The research progress on legal issues regarding animal protection is a crucial aspect in the field of animal welfare. This paper delves into the historical development of animal protection laws, shedding light on the evolution of legal frameworks aimed at safeguarding the rights and well-being of animals. It also explores the contemporary legal challenges in animal protection, addressing the complexities and gaps in existing laws that hinder effective enforcement and implementation. By examining the current state of animal protection laws, this study offers valuable insights into potential solutions and future directions for advancing the legal protection of animals. Through a comprehensive analysis of the legal landscape surrounding animal welfare, this research contributes to the ongoing discourse on the ethical and legal considerations in animal protection.

The Interplay of Fiqh, Adat, and State Marriage Law: Shaping Legal Consciousness of Sasak Women

Sasak women grapple with a legal conundrum stemming from the coexistence of multiple marriage legal frameworks encompassing fiqh, adat, and state law. This intricate legal pluralism dynamically shapes the legal consciousness of Sasak women as they navigate the selection of legal avenues to secure legality and address their marital legal challenges. This study pursues two primary objectives: firstly, to examine the intricate interplay among fiqh, adat, and state marriage law concerning the provision of legal certainty and protection for Sasak women; secondly, to probe into the manifestations of legal consciousness arising from the plural marriage legal frameworks. Data were collected through document analysis, literature review, and in-depth interviews with selected Sasak women. The findings illuminate a dynamic interplay among fiqh, adat, and state marriage law across various marital facets, including prenuptial considerations, minimum marriage age, marriage prerequisites and pillars, marriage contracts, residency, polygamy, divorce, and reconciliation. Moreover, the study identifies three distinct forms of legal consciousness emerging among Sasak women: ‘before the law’ when confronting fiqh, ‘with the law’ when embracing formal legal mechanisms to address marital issues, and ‘against the law’ when eschewing formal legal provisions. In conclusion, state marriage laws are more progressive in providing legal certainty and protection for women but lacking criminal sanctions/fines weakens their position compared to religious law (fiqh) and customs (adat). Ultimately, this shapes the legal consciousness of Sasak women in diverse ways.

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS OF ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AND THE PLACE OF A LAWYER IN IT

The relevance of the studied topic is that subjects of administrative law are one of the most important elements of the legal system, since we are talking about such participants in admin­istrative-legal relations who solve tasks and perform the functions of executive power, who co­ordinate administrative and control-supervisory powers in branches of state administration and local self-government, consider cases of administrative offenses committed by individuals and legal entities in various spheres of public life, etc. It is important to clearly classify the place of each element of the system of administrative legal relations, in order to understand the direct powers and duties assigned to it. Without a deep understanding of the assigned role by each participant in administrative and legal relations, the very functioning of such a system is at risk. The main problems that need to be considered and solved at the new stage of the develop­ment of modern science and practice include the definition of subjects of administrative law, the analysis of their essence and features, as well as the outline of the main criteria for clas­sification. A necessary condition for the successful reform of administrative law as a fundamental branch of Ukrainian state law is the updating of the provisions of the theoretical and method­ological base of administrative and legal science. The article examines the systems of classification of subjects of administrative law exist­ing in modern legal science. The essence and content of the concept of “subject of administra­tive law”, as well as generally accepted definitions of this term, were studied. An attempt was made to establish the place of a lawyer in the system of subjects of admin­istrative law of Ukraine. A comprehensive approach to distinguishing and classifying a lawyer as a subject of administrative law is applied, taking into account the peculiarities of legal status, organizational and legal form of activity and the scope of public powers. However, the analysis of special literature shows that only a few researchers tried to con­sider the lawyer as a subject of administrative law or to determine his place in the accepted classifications.