Latitudinal Species Richness Patterns Research Articles

Enhancing georeferenced biodiversity inventories: automated information extraction from literature records reveal the gaps.

We use natural language processing (NLP) to retrieve location data for cheilostome bryozoan species (text-mined occurrences (TMO)) in an automated procedure. We compare these results with data combined from two major public databases (DB): the Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS), and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). Using DB and TMO data separately and in combination, we present latitudinal species richness curves using standard estimators (Chao2 and the Jackknife) and range-through approaches. Our combined DB and TMO species richness curves quantitatively document a bimodal global latitudinal diversity gradient for extant cheilostomes for the first time, with peaks in the temperate zones. A total of 79% of the georeferenced species we retrieved from TMO (N = 1,408) and DB (N = 4,549) are non-overlapping. Despite clear indications that global location data compiled for cheilostomes should be improved with concerted effort, our study supports the view that many marine latitudinal species richness patterns deviate from the canonical latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG). Moreover, combining online biodiversity databases with automated information retrieval from the published literature is a promising avenue for expanding taxon-location datasets.

Roles of Dispersal Limit and Environmental Filtering in Shaping the Spatiotemporal Patterns of Invasive Alien Plant Diversity in China

Biological invasion pose a severe threat to global biodiversity, and studies of bioinvasion patterns and the underlying mechanisms provide critical tests to ecological theories. China is a global hotspot of biodiversity and also biological invasions. The understanding of mechanisms for bioinvasion patterns has been limited by inadequacy of data spatial resolution, and lack of a historical perspective. This study compiled the first nation-scale distribution data with a sub-provincial spatial unit (prefecture) for 463 invasive alien plants species (IAPS) recorded in China, as well as their introduction times. The spatiotemporal patterns of species richness of invasive alien plants, including three life forms (annual-biennial, perennial, and woody) were explored, then related the species richness patterns with environmental, social-economic and historical factors. Statistical analyses included quantile regression, generalized linear model (GLM), and hierarchical variation partitioning. The results indicated that: (1) herbaceous species comprised 84% of the 463 IAPS in China; (2) plant introductions into China accelerated since 1800, reaching the maximum rate during 1900–1940. IAPS richness had a closer correlation with the time of newest introduction (R2= 0.155) than with that of the oldest introduction (R2= 0.472); (3) IAPS richness decreases with increasing latitude (r= −0.32,P< 0.001) and decreases from the coastal and southern terrestrial borders to inland regions, but doesn’t increase with prefecture size. The three life forms of IAPS showed similar latitudinal patterns of species richness and divergent latitudinal patterns of species percentage. (4) IAPS richness showed significantly positive correlations with thermal climate and a negative relationship with climate seasonality. GLM explained up to 65% of the variation in spatial patterns of IAPS and three life forms; with much less variation explained in the species percentage patterns. The year of the most recent IAPS introduction and the low temperature limit jointly dominated spatial patterns of IAPS richness in China, whereas road density showed little effect. Therefore, global warming and economic globalization play a prominent role in promoting biological invasion in the last few decades, and will continue to drive the trend of plant invasion in China and probably elsewhere.

Global biodiversity and biogeography of mangrove crabs: Temperature, the key driver of latitudinal gradients of species richness.

Mangroves are ideal habitat for a variety of marine species especially brachyuran crabs as the dominant macrofauna. However, the global distribution, endemicity, and latitudinal gradients of species richness in mangrove crabs remains poorly understood. Here, we assessed whether species richness of mangrove crabs decreases towards the higher latitudes and tested the importance of environmental factors such as Sea Surface Temperature (SST) in creating the latitudinal gradients in species richness of mangrove crabs. A total of 8262 distribution records of 481 species belonging to six families of mangrove crabs including Camptandriidae, Dotillidae, Macrophthalmidae, Ocypodidae, Sesarmidae, and Oziidae were extracted from open-access databases or collected by the authors, quality controlled, cleaned, and analyzed. Species richness was plotted against 5° latitudinal bands in relation to environmental factors. The R software and ArcGIS 10.6.1 were used to analyze the species latitudinal range and richness as well as to map the distribution of mangrove forest, endemic species, species geographical distribution records, and biogeographic regions. The Indo-West Pacific showed the highest species richness of mangrove crabs where more than 65% of species were found in the Indian Ocean and along the western Pacific Ocean. Our results showed that there are 11 significantly different biogeographic regions of mangrove crabs. The highest endemicity rate was observed in the NW Pacific Ocean (29%). Latitudinal patterns of species richness in Macrophthalmidae, Ocypodidae, and Sesarmidae showed an increasing trend from the poles toward the intermediate latitudes including one dip near the equator. However, latitudinal gradients in Camptandriidae, Dotillidae, and Oziidae were unimodal increasing from the higher latitudes towards the equator. Species richness per 5° latitudinal bands significantly increased following mean SST mean (°C), calcite, euphotic depth (m), and mangrove area (km2) across all latitudes, and tide average within each hemisphere. Species richness significantly decreased with dissolved O2 (ml l-1) and nitrate (μmol l-1) over all latitudes and in the southern hemisphere. The climax of global latitudinal species richness for some mangrove was observed along latitudes 20° N and 15°-25° S, not at the equator. This can suggest that temperature is probably the key driver of latitudinal gradients of mangrove crabs' species richness. Species richness and mangrove area were also highly correlated.

Latitudinal patterns of species richness and range size of ferns along elevational gradients at the transition from tropics to subtropics

AbstractAimTo assess the range size patterns of ferns and lycophytes along elevational gradients at different latitudes in an ecographical transition zone and search for predictors of range size from a set of environmental factors.LocationMexico, from 15° to 23° N.TaxonFerns and lycophytes.MethodsAll terrestrial and epiphytic species were recorded in 658 plots of 400 m2 along eight elevational gradients. To test whether the range size within assemblages increases with elevation and latitude, we calculated the latitudinal range using the northern and southern limits of each species and averaged the latitudinal range of all species within assemblages weighted by their abundances. We related climatic factors and the changes with latitude and elevation with range size using linear mixed‐effects models.ResultsSpecies richness per plot increased with elevation up to about 1,500–2,000 m, with strong differences in overall species richness between transects and a reduction with increasing latitude. The mean weighted range size of species within assemblages declined with elevation, and increased with latitude, as predicted by theory. However, we also found marked differences between the Atlantic and Pacific slopes of Mexico, as well as low range size in humid regions. The best models described about 76%–80% of the variability in range size and included the seasonality in both temperature and precipitation, and annual cloud cover.Main conclusionLatitudinal and elevational patterns of range size in fern assemblages are driven by an interplay of factors favouring wide‐ranging species (higher latitudes with increasing temperature seasonality; dryer habitat conditions) and those favouring species with restricted ranges (higher elevations; humid habitat conditions), with additional variation introduced by the specific conditions of individual mountain ranges. Climatically stable, humid habitats apparently provide favourable conditions for small‐ranged fern species, and should accordingly be given high priority in regional conservation planning.

Regional and latitudinal patterns of soft-bottom macrobenthic invertebrates along French coasts: Results from the RESOMAR database

This study aims to describe the patterns of soft bottom macrozoobenthic richness along French coasts. It is based on a collaborative database developed by the “Réseau des Stations et Observatoires Marins” (RESOMAR). We investigated patterns of species richness in sublittoral soft bottom habitats (EUNIS level 3) at two different spatial scales: 1) seaboards: English Channel, Bay of Biscay and Mediterranean Sea and 2) 0.5° latitudinal and longitudinal grid. Total observed richness, rarefaction curves and three incidence-based richness estimators (Chao2, ICE and Jacknife1) were used to compare soft bottom habitats species richness in each seaboard. Overall, the Mediterranean Sea has the highest richness and despite higher sampling effort, the English Channel hosts the lowest number of species. The distribution of species occurrence within and between seaboards was assessed for each major phylum using constrained rarefaction curves. The Mediterranean Sea hosts the highest number of exclusive species. In pairwise comparisons, it also shares a lower proportion of taxa with the Bay of Biscay (34.1%) or the English Channel (27.6%) than that shared between these two seaboards (49.7%). Latitudinal species richness patterns along the Atlantic and English Channel coasts were investigated for each major phylum using partial LOESS regression controlling for sampling effort. This showed the existence of a bell-shaped latitudinal pattern, highlighting Brittany as a hotspot for macrobenthic richness at the confluence of two biogeographic provinces.

Patrones de diversidad de aves a lo largo de un gradiente latitudinal de bosques ribereños del río Paraná medio, Argentina

We studied the variation of species richness (alpha diversity), beta diversity, abundance and evenness of bird assemblages along a latitudinal gradient of 500km of riparian forests. We sampled 5 localities placed in north-south direction through a mixed sampling technique (transects and points count). Species richness decreased as latitude increased, reproducing the pattern of regional species richness reported in a previous study. Since we found a latitudinal pattern of species richness and abundance, results supported the “more individuals hypothesis” as a mechanism that explains the latitudinal pattern of diversity. Beta diversity and evenness did not vary latitudinally. Results showed that alpha component of diversity is more important than beta component in terms of its influence on the negative latitudinal pattern of regional richness of birds in a subtropical area. Despite the exclusive environmental characteristics of riparian corridors, we found a negative latitudinal pattern of alpha diversity which is widespread in upland environments.

Worldwide patterns of fish biodiversity in estuaries: Effect of global vs. local factors

The main ecological patterns and the functioning of estuarine ecosystems are difficult to evaluate due to natural and human induced complexity and variability. Broad geographical approaches appear particularly useful. This study tested, at a worldwide scale, the influence of global and local variables in fish species richness in estuaries, aiming to determine the latitudinal pattern of species richness, and patterns which could be driven by local features such as estuary area, estuary mouth width, river flow and intertidal area. Seventy one estuarine systems were considered with data obtained from the literature and geographical information system. Correlation tests and generalized linear models (GLM) were used in data analyses. Species richness varied from 23 to 153 fish species. GLM results showed that estuary area was the most important factor explaining species richness, followed by latitude and mouth width. Species richness increased towards the equator, and higher values were found in larger estuaries and with a wide mouth. All these trends showed a high variability. A larger estuary area probably reflects a higher diversity of habitats and/or productivity, which are key features for estuarine ecosystem functioning and biota. The mouth width effect is particularly notorious for marine and diadromous fish species, enhancing connectivity between marine and freshwater realms. The effects of river flow and intertidal area on the fish species richness appear to be less evident. These two factors may have a marked influence in the trophic structure of fish assemblages.

A review of the Entocytheridae (Ostracoda) of the world: updated bibliographic and species checklists and global georeferenced database, with insights into host specificity and latitudinal patterns of species richness

The creation of biodiversity datasets freely available for the scientific community is a valuable task to stimulate global research on biodiversity. Among others, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) is a remarkable resource providing free online access to biodiversity data on many diverse taxonomic groups (including Ostracoda) from both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. More specific databases for Ostracoda georeferenced data have been built (e.g., NACODe and OMEGA), some with freely available data. However, the Entocytheridae, a family of ostracods living commensal on other crustaceans, with 220 living species, representing the third non-marine ostracod family in number of species, has been remarkably under-represented in the currently available biodiversity databases. To cover this gap, we present here a free-access world database of Entocytheridae published in GBIF and review the current knowledge of the group by updating a bibliographic and species checklists of the Entocytheridae. We also analyse the host specificity of the group and the latitudinal species richness pattern in North and Central America (including 186 spp.). The current database includes 3509 georeferenced records from 220 species, in contrast to just 44 entocytherid georeferenced records previously published in GBIF. In addition, the updated species list accounts for 43 species and 2 genera that were not included in the previous compendium on Entocytheridae published by Hart & Hart in 1974, so as 40 species not included in the 2013 Checklist provided by the Catalogue of Life. We show that the specialisation in one unique host species is not the rule in Entocytheridae, and evidence an unusual latitudinal pattern of species richness in North and Central American entocytherids, most probably related to the biogeographic history of their hosts.

Mode of larval development as a key factor to explain contrasting effects of temperature on species richness across oceans

AbstractAimIt has been proposed that the mode of larval development (MLD) could explain the exceptions to the latitudinal gradient of species richness exhibited by several groups of marine organisms. We evaluate the generality of the latitudinal patterns of species richness for different MLDs, and analyse the effects of environmental variables on species richness – explicitly considering feeding type during the larval phase – to identify the relevance of the dichotomies between feeding and non‐feeding larvae and between pelagic and non‐pelagic development.LocationSouth America, from 10° to 54° S in the south‐western Atlantic and from 18° to 54° S in the south‐eastern Pacific.MethodsUsing molluscs and crustaceans in two oceans, we deconstructed latitudinal patterns of species richness for three MLDs (planktotrophic, lecithotrophic and direct development). The effects of sea water temperature, chlorophyll a concentration and shelf area on the spatial variation in species richness were analysed for each MLD.ResultsWe found remarkably similar trends in species richness deconstructed by MLD. Planktotrophic species richness decreased polewards, and the converse pattern was observed in direct developers. In the majority of groups with lecithotrophic development, species richness increased from middle to higher latitudes. The main component explaining the variation in species richness was the spatial structure of sea water temperature. Temperature showed positive effects on planktotrophic species and negative effects in almost all lecithotrophic or direct‐developing groups in both oceans and both taxa.Main conclusionsThe similar relationship of temperature with lecithotrophic and direct developers, which contrasts with planktotrophic species, suggests that food availability during planktonic larval development is a critical factor determining species distribution of marine invertebrates. We ruled out the cost of brooding as a single causal factor explaining the poleward increase in diversity of direct developers. Simple linear models can describe changes in the proportion of species with temperature within each MLD.

Distribution and richness of aquatic plants across Europe and Mediterranean countries: patterns, environmental driving factors and comparison with total plant richness

AbstractQuestionsWhat are the geographic patterns of γ‐diversity of aquatic plants and what are the main driving factors? Are richness trends for aquatic plants similar to total plant richness? Is the Mediterranean area a hot spot for aquatic plants?LocationEurope and the Mediterranean Basin.MaterialWe listed vascular aquatic plant presence or absence for 44 countries. We also compiled total plant species richness and geographic and environmental variables for each country.MethodsWe first analysed country ordination based on their aquatic flora constrained by environmental variables (dbRDA), and selected the environmental variables best explaining species patterns (BEST analysis). Total species richness patterns were studied using maps and latitudinal gradients. We used generalized additive models (GAM) to detect the main environmental factors driving species richness, both for aquatic plants and total plants.ResultsThe BEST analysis identified a single variable that best explains aquatic plant species distribution: evapotranspiration. However, richness of aquatic plants vs latitude varies and no clear trend was observed. No relation was found between total plant and aquatic plant richness. Aquatic and total plant richness peak between 40° and 50°N, and values were intermediate at low latitudes. GAM related aquatic plant richness with water resources and rainfall, while total plant richness is mainly driven by evapotranspiration and temperature. Hydrophytes were relatively more abundant at higher latitudes than helophytes and the ratio correlated with evapotranspiration.ConclusionSouthern and western Europe hold the highest aquatic plant diversity, although no clear latitudinal species richness patterns were found. Aquatic plant richness is mainly driven by water‐related variables. Total plant richness exhibits a latitudinal pattern influenced by the Sahara desert, which depresses richness at low latitudes. Best predictors of total plant richness patterns are water–energy variables.

Diversification rates and chromosome evolution in the most diverse angiosperm genus of the temperate zone (Carex, Cyperaceae)

The sedge family (Cyperaceae: Poales; ca. 5600 spp.) is a hyperdiverse cosmopolitan group with centres of species diversity in Africa, Australia, eastern Asia, North America, and the Neotropics. Carex, with ca. 40% of the species in the family, is one of the most species-rich angiosperm genera and the most diverse in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, making it atypical among plants in that it inverts the latitudinal gradient of species richness. Moreover, Carex exhibits high rates of chromosome rearrangement via fission, fusion, and translocation, which distinguishes it from the rest of the Cyperaceae. Here, we use a phylogenetic framework to examine how the onset of contemporary temperate climates and the processes of chromosome evolution have influenced the diversification dynamics of Carex. We provide estimates of diversification rates and map chromosome transitions across the evolutionary history of the main four clades of Carex. We demonstrate that Carex underwent a shift in diversification rates sometime between the Late Eocene and the Oligocene, during a global cooling period, which fits with a transition in diploid chromosome number. We suggest that adaptive radiation to novel temperate climates, aided by a shift in the mode of chromosome evolution, may explain the large-scale radiation of Carex and its latitudinal pattern of species richness.

Latitudinal trends in the species richness of free‐living marine nematode assemblages from exposed sandy beaches along the coast of Chile (18–42 °S)

AbstractThe latitudinal pattern of species richness of free‐living marine nematodes from exposed sandy beaches along the coast of Chile between 18 and 42° S was examined. Unlike many other examinations of latitudinal gradients, this study is not based on data mined from the literature, but on samples collected specifically to examine these themes. Five replicate quantitative 50 cm3 samples of sediment were taken from the zone of retention of 66 exposed sandy beaches. The free‐living nematode fauna was identified and quantified to species level. The data were then examine using ordinary least squares and simultaneous autoregressive model (SARerr) regression methods, examining the associations between species richness and latitude, coastline complexity, and sea surface temperature, primary productivity of the adjacent coastal waters and mean latitudinal range size. The species richness of free‐living marine nematodes from exposed sandy beaches along the coast of Chile decreased with increasing latitude and was strongly associated with mean annual sea surface temperature. Mean latitudinal range size increased with increasing latitude, supporting Rapoport’s rule, and decreased with increasing species richness. The results suggest that the nematode fauna of exposed sandy beaches is derived from a low latitude fauna that has dispersed to higher latitudes, but that many species may be physiologically constrained, by temperature, from dispersing further south.

Deconstructing latitudinal species richness patterns in the ocean: does larval development hold the clue?

The consistent decrease in species richness with latitude shows several exceptions among marine organisms. We hypothesize that contrasting latitudinal diversity gradients can be explained by differences in critical life-history attributes, such as mode of larval development (MLD). We deconstructed latitudinal species richness patterns of marine benthic invertebrates according to MLD to elucidate differences in patterns of species richness and to reveal underlying processes. The patterns of species richness were remarkably similar across taxa within MLD but differed between MLD. Species richness decreased polewards in planktotrophic species and increased in direct developers. Temperature explained most of the variation in species richness. Low temperature at high latitudes may generally favour direct developing species, but, together with low chlorophyll-a concentration, limit the distribution of planktotrophic species. The contrasting influence of temperature on different MLDs might be explained by its effect on the length of planktonic life and on brooding costs.

Climatic drivers of hemispheric asymmetry in global patterns of ant species richness

Although many taxa show a latitudinal gradient in richness, the relationship between latitude and species richness is often asymmetrical between the northern and southern hemispheres. Here we examine the latitudinal pattern of species richness across 1003 local ant assemblages. We find latitudinal asymmetry, with southern hemisphere sites being more diverse than northern hemisphere sites. Most of this asymmetry could be explained statistically by differences in contemporary climate. Local ant species richness was positively associated with temperature, but negatively (although weakly) associated with temperature range and precipitation. After contemporary climate was accounted for, a modest difference in diversity between hemispheres persisted, suggesting that factors other than contemporary climate contributed to the hemispherical asymmetry. The most parsimonious explanation for this remaining asymmetry is that greater climate change since the Eocene in the northern than in the southern hemisphere has led to more extinctions in the northern hemisphere with consequent effects on local ant species richness.

Latitudinal variation of diversity in European freshwater animals is not concordant across habitat types

ABSTRACTAim We analysed the variation of species richness in the European freshwater fauna across latitude. In particular, we compared latitudinal patterns in species richness and β‐diversity among species adapted to different habitat types.Location Europe.Methods We compiled data on occurrence for 14,020 animal species across 25 pre‐defined biogeographical regions of European freshwaters from the Limnofauna Europaea. Furthermore, we extracted information on the habitat preferences of species. We assigned species to three habitat types: species adapted to groundwater, lotic (running water) and lentic (standing water) habitats. We analysed latitudinal patterns of species richness, the proportion of lentic species and β‐diversity.Results Only lentic species showed a significant species–area relationship. We found a monotonic decline of species richness with latitude for groundwater and lotic habitats, but a hump‐shaped relationship for lentic habitats. The proportion of lentic species increased from southern to northern latitudes. β‐Diversity declined from groundwater to lentic habitats and from southern to northern latitudes.Main conclusions The differences in the latitudinal variation of species richness among species adapted to different habitat types are in part due to differences in the propensity for dispersal. Since lentic habitats are less persistent than lotic or groundwater habitats, lentic species evolved more efficient strategies for dispersal. The dispersal propensity of lentic species facilitated the recolonization of central Europe after the last glaciation. Overall, we stress the importance of considering the history of regions and lineages as well as the ecological traits of species for understanding patterns of biodiversity.

Latitudinal patterns of range size and species richness of New World woody plants

ABSTRACTAim Relationships between range size and species richness are contentious, yet they are key to testing the various hypotheses that attempt to explain latitudinal diversity gradients. Our goal is to utilize the largest data set yet compiled for New World woody plant biogeography to describe and assess these relationships between species richness and range size.Location North and South America.Methods We estimated the latitudinal extent of 12,980 species of woody plants (trees, shrubs, lianas). From these estimates we quantified latitudinal patterns of species richness and range size. We compared our observations with expectations derived from two null models.Results Peak richness and the smallest‐ and largest‐ranged species are generally found close to the equator. In contrast to prominent diversity hypotheses: (1) mean latitudinal extent of tropical species is greater than expected; (2) latitudinal extent appears to be decoupled from species richness across New World latitudes, with abrupt transitions across subtropical latitudes; and (3) mean latitudinal extents show equatorial and north temperate peaks and subtropical minima. Our results suggest that patterns of range size and richness appear to be influenced by three broadly overlapping biotic domains (biotic provinces) for New World woody plants.Main conclusions Hypotheses that assume a direct relationship between range size and species richness may explain richness patterns within these domains, but cannot explain gradients in richness across the New World.

Latitudinal gradients in diversity: real patterns and random models

Mid-domain models have been argued to provide a default explanation for the best known spatial pattern in biodiversity, namely the latitudinal gradient in species richness. These models assume no environmental gradients, but merely a random latitudinal association between the size and placement of the geographic ranges of species. A mid-domain peak in richness is generated because when the latitudinal extents of species in a given taxonomic group are bounded to north and south, perhaps by a physical constraint such as a continental edge or perhaps by a climatic constraint such as a critical temperature or precipitation threshold, then the number of ways in which ranges can be distributed changes systematically between the bounds. In addition, such models make predictions about latitudinal variation in the latitudinal extents of the distributions of species, and in beta diversity (the spatial turnover in species identities). Here we test how well five mid-domain models predict observed latitudinal patterns of species richness, latitudinal extent and beta diversity in two groups of birds, parrots and woodpeckers, across the New World. Whilst both groups exhibit clear gradients in richness and beta diversity and the general trend in species richness is acceptably predicted (but not accurately, unless substantial empirical information is assumed), the fit of these models is uniformly poor for beta diversity and latitudinal range extent. This suggests either that, at least for these data, as presently formulated mid-domain models are too simplistic, or that in practice the mid-domain effect is not significant in determining geographical variation in diversity.

Latitudinal gradients in diversity: real patterns and random models

Mid‐domain models have been argued to provide a default explanation for the best known spatial pattern in biodiversity, namely the latitudinal gradient in species richness. These models assume no environmental gradients, but merely a random latitudinal association between the size and placement of the geographic ranges of species. A mid‐domain peak in richness is generated because when the latitudinal extents of species in a given taxonomic group are bounded to north and south, perhaps by a physical constraint such as a continental edge or perhaps by a climatic constraint such as a critical temperature or precipitation threshold, then the number of ways in which ranges can be distributed changes systematically between the bounds. In addition, such models make predictions about latitudinal variation in the latitudinal extents of the distributions of species, and in beta diversity (the spatial turnover in species identities). Here we test how well five mid‐domain models predict observed latitudinal patterns of species richness, latitudinal extent and beta diversity in two groups of birds, parrots and woodpeckers, across the New World. Whilst both groups exhibit clear gradients in richness and beta diversity and the general trend in species richness is acceptably predicted (but not accurately, unless substantial empirical information is assumed), the fit of these models is uniformly poor for beta diversity and latitudinal range extent. This suggests either that, at least for these data, as presently formulated mid‐domain models are too simplistic, or that in practice the mid‐domain effect is not significant in determining geographical variation in diversity.

Bird and mammal conservation in Gaoligongshan Region and Jingdong County, Yunnan, China: patterns of species richness and nature reserves

AbstractElevational and latitudinal patterns of species richness for birds and mammals were compared with human population density in relation to nature reserve designation in two areas of Yunnan Province, China. Results suggest that species richness is not the same for the two areas. In Gaoligongshan Region, species richness is inversely correlated with elevation and altitude, while reserve designation is positively correlated with elevation and latitude. In Jingdong County, reserve designations are positively correlated with elevation, but species richness shows no clear trends. In general, the present situation is strongly influenced by human activities. It appears that reserve designation is mismatched with species richness in Gaoligongshan Region, while there is a better fit between the two in Jingdong County. In both areas, however, it appeared that reserves were located primarily in order to reduce conflict with humans rather than to maximize conservation of biodiversity, probably because humans were responsible for forest—especially primary forest—destruction and degradation in the low-lying areas.

Bird and mammal conservation in Gaoligongshan Region and Jingdong County, Yunnan, China: patterns of species richness and nature reserves

Elevational and latitudinal patterns of species richness for birds and mammals were compared with human population density in relation to nature reserve designation in two areas of Yunnan Province, China. Results suggest that species richness is not the same for the two areas. In Gaoligongshan Region, species richness is inversely correlated with elevation and altitude, while reserve designation is positively correlated with elevation and latitude. In Jingdong County, reserve designations are positively correlated with elevation, but species richness shows no clear trends. In general, the present situation is strongly influenced by human activities. It appears that reserve designation is mismatched with species richness in Gaoligongshan Region, while there is a better fit between the two in Jingdong County. In both areas, however, it appeared that reserves were located primarily in order to reduce conflict with humans rather than to maximize conservation of biodiversity, probably because humans were responsible for forest—especially primary forest—destruction and degradation in the low-lying areas.