Latino Male Adolescents Research Articles

Relationship between adiponectin and blood pressure in obese Latino adolescent boys with a family history of type 2 diabetes

introductionAdipokines are associated with several pathological states including, metabolic syndrome, obesity, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. One of these adipokines, adiponectin is of particular interest as it has been shown to have numerous anti-inflammatory effects, However, the association between adiponectin and blood pressure remains inconclusive especially in the Latino adolescent with obesity.PurposeTo investigate the relationship between plasma adiponectin and blood pressure in Latino adolescents’ boys with obesity and a with a family history of Type 2 diabetes.MethodsThirty two Latino adolescent males with obesity aged 14–17 years with a family history of type 2 diabetes underwent a frequently sampled glucose tolerance test (FSIVGTT) to measure insulin sensitivity. Body composition was assessed using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry. Obesity was defined as having a BMI percentile ≥95. Blood pressure was assessed using the Dinamap automated blood pressure monitor, and the average of three readings was used in the analysis. Fasting plasma adiponectin was determined using radioimmunoassay.ResultsThere were moderate positive significant correlations for adiponectin and Systolic blood pressure(SBP) (rho = 0.436, p < 0.027) and Diastolic blood pressure(DBP) (rho = 0.41,p < 0.028). A multivariate liner regression showed that plasma adiponectin could significantly detect 19% of the variance in SBP (p = 0.017, and 33% for DBP (p = 0.017). In a simple linear regression adiponectin was not related to any of our variables (p < 0.05).ConclusionIn conclusion, adiponectin was positively and significantly correlated to blood pressure in Latino adolescent with obesity. Future studies should investigate this relationship in a large sample of Latino adolescent youth.

Paternal Communication and Sexual Health Clinic Visits Among Latino and Black Adolescent Males With Resident and Nonresident Fathers

PurposeLatino and Black adolescent males experience sexual health inequities, and their engagement in sexual health services remains low. Parents shape adolescent sexual health behavior and other youth outcomes. However, the role of Latino and Black fathers in promoting male adolescent sexual health is understudied, in part because about one in four fathers resides apart from their children and nonresident fathers are presumed to be less influential. We examined associations of paternal communication with sexual health service use and perceived paternal role modeling among Latino and Black adolescent males with resident and nonresident fathers. MethodsWe recruited 191 Latino and Black adolescent males aged 15–19 years and their fathers in the South Bronx, New York City, using area sampling methods; dyads completed surveys. We estimated bivariate and adjusted associations of paternal communication with adolescent male sexual health service use and perceived paternal role modeling using logistic and linear regressions. Effect measure modification by paternal residence was assessed. ResultsA unit increase on a five-point paternal communication scale was associated with approximately twice and 1.7 times the likelihood of clinical sexual health service use during adolescent males' lifetime and in the past 3 months, respectively; there was no significant effect measure modification by paternal residence. Paternal communication was associated with increased levels of perceived paternal role modeling and usefulness of paternal advice, with stronger associations for nonresident fathers. DiscussionBoth resident and nonresident Latino and Black fathers warrant greater consideration as partners in promoting male adolescent sexual health service use.

Stagnant Dreamers: How the Inner City Shapes the Integration of Second-Generation Latinos

In this new text, María G. Rendón provides a fresh perspective on an important topic in ethnic history. Specifically, she offers a very well-written monograph discussing how violence directly affects the life trajectories of the adolescent Latinos living in two specific neighborhoods in Los Angeles, namely Pueblo Viejo and Century City. She also discusses the importance of social and familial networks upon those who live in it.Rendón examines each of the communities individually. She looks at Pueblo Viejo, primarily a Mexican American origin community, and Century City, primarily a Mexican American and Central American neighborhood. She examines how forty-two Latino adolescent and young adult males seek to build their own lives and become independent men, with varying degrees of success. Within each community, she analyzes how sectors such as psychology, education, law, health care, and business affect these young men and their life choices. She argues that the amount of violence boys are subjected to in these neighborhoods has a direct impact on whether they complete high school or become incarcerated.According to Rendón, earning a formal education via high school or community college completion (and in one case, earning a bachelor's degree from an Ivy League institution) did not necessarily help her subjects escape neighborhood violence and negative influences. She cites the importance of sports, churches, and other community activities in keeping boys active, occupied, and supervised. She continues that first-generation relatives, who are often bound by low-paying employment that requires long hours and offers little hope of advancement or higher wages, also benefit from strong community and kin ties. These frequent references to biological and fictive kin networks might remind readers of Carol Stack's All Our Kin.One aspect that makes this book so valuable is that in the early chapters, she provides an historical overview of the events that have shaped these communities and other urban centers in the United States. She includes a synopsis of events in immigration history that directly affect those of Mexican heritage, such as the bracero workers program during the mid-twentieth century and the Immigration and Reform Control Act of 1986.Features that are especially useful in her work are the appendix and methodology discussion. She provides a comprehensive and fully transparent blueprint for her work. This is particularly valuable for scholars who wish to replicate her work. Rendón offers follow-up details on the subjects she profiled throughout the text while maintaining subject confidentiality.This book is an example of interdisciplinary scholarship and is built upon flagship research from earlier decades, including that of William Julius Wilson. Alongside her own research, Rendón provides an excellent combination of various theories and concepts that are centered in population studies and immigration trends.There are myriad ways that this book could be of import to professionals and students outside the discipline of history. Those within and without academia will find it useful as a reference tool. This text would be a solid introduction to the notion of ethnic history and ethnic studies for professionals in fields such as psychology, social work, law, medicine, finance, political science, urban planning, and her own field of public policy. It would be especially useful to higher education administrators seeking to learn how to meet the needs of Latino/a students.Finally, it provides an insightful snapshot to those living in these communities. Because of her work, residents have a helpful analysis for reflection upon their communities’ current condition and, in turn, make decisions about their futures.

“She is Always Doing the Work"

Marianismo is a term that refers to the prioritization of Latina mothers in regard to their children and families. In defining as such, this term acknowledges how selfless Latina mothers are. This study utilized an adapted version of Narrative Analysis to explore the insights of Latino adolescent mentees when it comes to their experiences living with a single mother. Specifically, the participants’ narratives included their highly positive relationships with their mothers who exhibit many admirable qualities, they spoke about their varying relationships with their biological fathers, and they also discussed helpful, supportive father figures (i.e., natural mentors) in their lives. The Discussion section relates the study’s findings to Attachment Theory and Social LeMarianismo refers to the prioritization of Latina mothers concerning their children and families. This term acknowledges the selflessness of Latina mothers. This study explored the perceptions of thirteen Latino adolescent participants following their experiences of being raised by a single mother. To study this relationship, an adapted version of Narrative Analysis was used. While the analysis focused on participants’ relationships with their mothers, relationships with their biological fathers and other father figures (i.e., natural mentors) in their lives were explored. The study’s findings are contextualized through the lens of attachment theory, social learning theory, and the relevant literature. This study shines light on the important impact of mothers and natural mentors on the lives of Latino male adolescents. Social workers from varying professional domains who are working with Latino families can take the marianismo cultural value into account in their own interactions and services with their clients. Additionally, just as the Latino adolescents in this study were keenly aware of their mothers’ many positive values, strengths, and contributions to their lives, it is vital for social workers to do the same. arning theory, as well as relevant literature. This study shines light on the great impacts that mothers and natural mentors can have on Latino male adolescents.

Condom Decision Making Among Latino and Black Adolescent Males: Social Neurobiological and Paternal Influences

Purpose: We explored mechanisms of paternal influence associated with adolescent male condom decision making and behavior within an integrated framework of social neurobiological and behavioral theories of condom use. Method: Self-administered surveys from Latino and Black adolescent males aged 15–19 years ( n = 191) and their fathers were obtained. Dyads were recruited using area sampling methodology. Analyses included multivariable logistic and ordinary least squares regression examining direct and indirect associations of adolescent decision-analytic and paternal influence factors with adolescent condomless sex in the past 3 months. Results: Notions of masculinity, low-risk perception, partner approval of, and self-efficacy for condomless sex were associated with engaging in unprotected sex. Adolescent males reported reduced odds of engaging in condomless sex when indicating greater levels of father–son communication, relationship satisfaction, and paternal monitoring. Conclusion: Father-based interventions grounded in integrated theoretical frameworks of behavioral decision making and neuroscience have the potential to promote condom use among adolescent males.

Effect of home-based strength training program on IGF-I, IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-3 in obese Latino boys participating in a 16-week randomized controlled trial

Introduction Growing evidence indicates that circulating concentrations of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-I), along with IGF-I relative to IGF-binding proteins (IGFBP), are associated with an increased risk of cancer. In accord, regular exercise is linked with a lower risk of cancer. Purpose To assess the effects of a 16-week home-based strength training (HBST) program on serum IGF-I, IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-3. Methods A total of 32 obese Latino adolescent males (aged 14-18 years) were randomized into a twice-weekly HBST (n = 16) or a control group (C, n = 16) for 16 weeks. The following were measured at pre- and post-intervention: IGF-I, IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-3, glucose/insulin indices by oral and/or intravenous (IV) glucose tolerance tests, strength by one-repetition maximum (1RM), dietary intake by 3-d records, body composition by DEXA and physical activity using the Actigraph GT1X. The generalized linear model (GLM) was used to assess differences in changes among outcome measures between the HBST and C groups. Results Exercise adherence in the HBST group was 89%. IGF-1 showed a trend for significant within-subject improvements (p = 0.078) but no significant within-subject or between-subject differences for IGFBP-1, IGFBP-3 two-glucose, fasting glucose or 2-h glucose (p > 0.05). There was a significant decrease (p > 0.05) in fasting glucose in the C group (p = 0.02) and also in the intervention group (p = 0.03) between baseline and follow-up testing. A significant difference was also found in the C group for 2-h glucose with an increase at follow-up testing (p = 0.04). Conclusions Though not statistically significant (p < 0.05), the results indicated that a 16-week HBST program decreased IGF-I and increased IGFBP-1, along with IGFBP-3, concentrations among overweight/obese Latino boys. However, further studies should consider increasing either the dose or the duration of the intervention to elicit greater improvements in this at-risk pediatric population.

Nosotros Importamos (We Matter): The Use of Testimonios with Latino Male Adolescents in Group Counseling

ABSTRACTThe authors of this article present content, outcomes, and analysis of testimonios created and used by Latino male adolescents during group counseling. Testimonios, a verbal rendition of the journey of a person who bears witness to the injustices they endured, can become a socially therapeutic act for Latino male adolescents to desahogarse [to vent]. The dearth of research capturing the experiences of Latino male adolescents creating testimonios in group counseling warrants more application of this cultural intervention in treatment. Testimonios were analyzed using the Interpretative Phenomenological Approach (IPA) and categorized into themes including writing/drawing testimonios as healing, sharing testimonios as healing, and empowerment through testimonios.

Father-Son Communication About Consistent and Correct Condom Use.

Twenty-five father-son dyads completed semistructured interviews designed to elicit specific preferences for teaching and learning about consistent and correct condom use and strategies for addressing common condom use errors and problems. For analysis, we used in vivo coding and vertical and horizontal analysis techniques. Fathers and sons agreed that communication about condom use is feasible and acceptable. However, fathers tended to convey vague messages regarding protecting oneself from the negative consequences of sexual activity. Furthermore, both fathers and sons reported barriers hindering conversations. Secondly, the style and frequency of condom use conversations can help overcome barriers and support father-son relationship management. Talking frequently in 1-on-1 settings and using strategies to reduce discomfort made communication easier. Lastly, fathers and sons reported distinct preferences for teaching and learning about condom use. Sons wanted fathers to give specific guidance on the use and management of condoms. Fathers expressed interest in opportunities for improving their own condom knowledge and skills. Fathers identified gaps in their own condom use knowledge as a limitation to effective instruction of their sons. A father-focused communication intervention about condom use is feasible and acceptable. Enhancing the intergenerational benefits of father-son communication by addressing specific father-son preferences and learning needs for condom use instruction, as well as communication barriers, represents a novel mechanism for reducing male sexual reproductive health disparities.

The Influence of Masculinity on Male Latino Adolescents' Perceptions Regarding Dating Relationships and Dating Violence.

In the United States, teen dating violence (TDV) is a concern across ethnic groups. Attitudes and correlates of violence differ by gender, culture, and acculturation. This study used a qualitative interpretive approach. Data were obtained in focus groups with 23 Latino male adolescents. Themes reflected contexts of participants' lives, and definitions and nature of dating relationships and TDV. Participants described the importance of respecting dating partners, the destructive effects of TDV, and the pressure to display masculinity that can lead some young men to perpetrate TDV. These results may advance culturally relevant interventions to promote healthy relationships and prevent dating violence.

Gangs in Los Angeles: Limited occupational possibilities for Latino male adolescents

ABSTRACTAn occupational perspective is relevant in examining how the unique context of a person’s life and environment can impact the types of occupations in which he or she participates, and the dilemmas that can occur when restrictive surroundings or perceived lack of lifestyle options constrain occupational choices. This paper examines how participation in gangs by Latino adolescent males may be due to the limited options for other occupations that low socioeconomic status (SES) neighborhoods afford. By presenting narrative from the memoir of a former gang member, alongside county public health records, the engaging and health-promoting occupations as well as health-threatening occupations of gang life are explored. This scholarly discussion contributes to occupational science by evaluating the relationship between context and occupational possibilities for Latino male adolescents living in constrained environments.

Composition or Context: Using Transportability to Understand Drivers of Site Differences in a Large-scale Housing Experiment.

The Moving To Opportunity (MTO) experiment manipulated neighborhood context by randomly assigning housing vouchers to volunteers living in public housing to use to move to lower poverty neighborhoods in five US cities. This random assignment overcomes confounding limitations that challenge other neighborhood studies. However, differences in MTO's effects across the five cities have been largely ignored. Such differences could be due to population composition (e.g., differences in the racial/ethnic distribution) or to context (e.g., differences in the economy). Using a nonparametric omnibus test and a multiply robust, semiparametric estimator for transportability, we assessed the extent to which differences in individual-level compositional characteristics that may act as effect modifiers can account for differences in MTO's effects across sites. We examined MTO's effects on marijuana use, behavioral problems, major depressive disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder among black and Latino adolescent males, where housing voucher receipt was harmful for health in some sites but beneficial in others. Comparing point estimates, differences in composition partially explained site differences in MTO effects on marijuana use and behavioral problems but did not explain site differences for major depressive disorder or generalized anxiety disorder. Our findings provide quantitative, rigorous evidence for the importance of context or unmeasured individual-level compositional variables in modifying MTO's effects.

Addressing a Critical Gap in U.S. National Teen Pregnancy Prevention Programs: The Acceptability and Feasibility of Father-Based Sexual and Reproductive Health Interventions for Latino Adolescent Males

The purpose of the research was to examine the feasibility and acceptability of a father-based sexual and reproductive health intervention designed to reduce sexual and reproductive (SRH) disparities and increase correct and consistent condom use among Latino adolescent males. The current study conducted in-depth semi-structured interviews with Latino father-son dyads (N=30) designed to elicit perspectives on communication regarding sex and condom use. In addition, the interview protocol included father-son preferences regarding paternal involvement in condom instruction and perceived obstacles and advantages of father direct involvement in education efforts designed to increase correct and consistent condom use among their adolescent sons. Three independent coders conducted both vertical and horizontal analyses of the data to identify emergent themes and reach theoretical saturation. The main findings from this study suggest that Latino fathers can be impactful in shaping Latino adolescent male sexual decision-making and correct and consistent condom use. However, our data highlight that while both feasible and acceptable, Latino fathers identify needing additional support in how best to communicate and seek opportunities to master their own knowledge and skills regarding condom use and effective communication with their adolescent sons about sex. Latino father-based interventions represent an acceptable and feasible option for building upon the recent success of U.S. national efforts to reduce teen pregnancy rates and STI disparities among Latino youth. However, there exists a need for father-based programs that will support Latino fathers in best educating their sons about condom use and better addressing their SRH. Ongoing national efforts to reduce Latino teen SRH disparities warrant the consideration of father-son interventions for Latino adolescent males in the United States.

One falls, we all fall: How boys of color develop close peer mentoring relationships

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study was to investigate the processes involved in developing close peer mentoring relationships among African American and Latino male adolescents in a school-based, group peer mentoring program. Qualitative one-on-one in-depth interviews were conducted with six school staff members, who administer the program, and 26 program participants about their experiences in the mentoring program. Data analysis revealed five program processes that led to close mentoring relationships: (a) rapport-building activities, (b) safe space, (c) mutual support, (d) group identity, and (e) trust. These processes ultimately led to bonding and friendship among program members, which further solidified the previous processes. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Effect Of Home-based Strength Training Program On Igf-i, Igfbp-1 And Igfbp-3 In Obese Latino Boys Participating In A 16 Week Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Accumulating evidence indicates circulating concentrations of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), or IGF-1 relative to IGF binding proteins (IGFBP’s) is associated with increased risk for the development of several forms of cancers. Similarly, exercise has been linked with reduced cancer risk. PURPOSE: To assess the effects of a 16-week (2xweek) home-based strength training (HBST) program on serum IGF-1, IGFBP-1, IGFBP3, and their ratio we randomized 32 obese Latino adolescent males (aged 14-18 years) into a twice-weekly Home Based Strength Training group (HBST;n=16) or a Control group (C;n=16) for 16 weeks. METHODS: Home-based strength training for 16 weeks, composed of two one-hour sessions per week. Outcome Measures were assessed pre- and post intervention/control condition and included IGF-1, IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-3, fasting glucose, two-hour glucose, Body Mass Index (BMI), dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan, dietary intake and physical activity using the Actigraph GT1X. GLM was used to assess differences in changes in outcome measures, between the C and the HBST groups. RESULTS: Over the 16 weeks of the intervention there was a trend for a significant within-subject’s differences for IGF 1 (p=0.078), but no significant within-subject’s differences for IGFBP-1 (p=0.187), IGFBP-3 (p=0.490), fasting glucose (p=0.87), and 2-hr glucose (p=0.38). There were also no between subject differences noted in fasting glucose (p=0.36), 2-hr glucose (p=0.84), SI (p=0.34), AIR (p=0.27), and DI (p=0.73). There was a trend for a between subject differences in IGF1 (p = 0.081). There were also no between subject differences noted in IGFBP-1 (p=0.194), IGFBP-3 (p = 0.202), fasting glucose (p=0.36), and 2-hr glucose (p=0.84). CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary results suggest that a twice per week 16-week home based strength training program does not affect concentrations of IGF-1, IGFBP-1, and IGFBP-3, in obese Latino boys.

The influence of cultural variables on treatment retention and engagement in a sample of Mexican American adolescent males with substance use disorders.

Adolescent substance abuse is a serious public health concern, and in response to this problem, a number of effective treatment approaches have been developed. Despite this, retaining and engaging adolescents in treatment are 2 major challenges continuously faced by practitioners and clinical researchers. Low retention and engagement rates are especially salient for ethnic minority adolescents because they are at high risk for underutilization of substance abuse treatment compared to their White peers. Latino adolescents, in particular, are part of the fastest growing ethnic minority group in the United States and experience high rates of substance use disorders. Heretofore, the empirical examination of cultural factors that influence treatment retention and engagement has been lacking in the literature. The goal of this study was to investigate the influence of the cultural variables ethnic identity, familism, and acculturation on the retention and engagement of Latino adolescents participating in substance abuse treatment. This study used data collected from a sample of Latino adolescent males (N = 96), predominantly of Mexican descent, and largely recruited from the juvenile justice system. Analysis was conducted using generalized regression models for count variables. Results indicated that higher levels of exploration, a subfactor of ethnic identity, and familism were predictive of attendance and engagement. In contrast, higher levels of Anglo orientation, a subfactor of acculturation, were predictive of lower treatment attendance and engagement. Clinical implications for the variables of ethnic identity, acculturation, and familism as well as suggestions for future research are discussed.

A Home-based Strength Training Intervention Improves The Self- Esteem But Not On Self - Perception Of Obese Latino Boys

BACKGROUND: It has been well established that physical activity improves depression, anxiety and behavioral problems in children. The effect of physical activity on self-perception and self-esteem has also been investigated. But there is a paucity of data on the effect of strength training on self-perception and self-esteem in male obese Latino youth. PURPOSE: To examine the effects of a 16 week (2xweek) home-based strength training (HBST) intervention group on self esteem, and self perception in obese Latino Boys. METHODS: 30 obese Latino adolescent males aged 14-18 years were randomized to either a twice-weekly Home Based Strength Training Intervention group (HBST; n=15) or a Control group (C; n=15) for 16 weeks. Home-based strength training for 16 weeks, composed of two one- hour sessions per week. Self-esteem and self-perception questionnaires were administered to the participants before and after the 16 week intervention. RESULTS: There was no significant improvement in self-perception (p>0.05). However, in the HBST intervention group there was a significant improvement in self-esteem (p= 0.023). CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that a Home Based Strength Training program may improve the self-esteem, but not self-perception of obese Latino boys. Further research is clearly warranted.

Toward a Relational Perspective on Young Black and Latino Males: The Contextual Patterns of Disclosure as Coping

In this article, David J. Knight investigates where and when Black and Latino male adolescents engage in self-disclosure—sharing their emotions, thoughts, and social perceptions—with their peers. Building from asset-based research and ecological theories of development, Knight analyzes in-depth interviews and finds that these adolescents may consider context in their decisions regarding whether or not to disclose to peers. Participants who reported disclosing behaviors tended to do so outside of school settings, while those who did not report disclosure discussed how experiences with community violence contributed to their decision not to share their feelings. Knight discusses the implications of this work for practitioners who hope to provide safe educational settings for young men of color.

Engaging African American and Latino Adolescent Males Through School-Based Health Centers

African American and Latino males are less likely to seek mental health services and obtain adequate care than their White counterparts. They are more likely to receive mental health services in school-based health centers (SBHCs) than in other community-based setting. The purpose of this article was to understand the issues and reasons these adolescents sought mental health services at SBHCs and what their perceptions of the services were. A content analysis of 22 individual interviews was conducted using Krippendorff's method. Five themes emerged from the analysis of the data: the burdens and hurdles of my life, the door is always open, sanctuary within chaos, they get to us, and achieve my best potential. Each of the themes was explored in detail with rich quotations from the adolescents. The findings illuminated the daily struggles these adolescents faced and the impact mental health services in SBHCs had on their daily lives.

Nancy Lesko: Act Your Age: A Cultural Construction of Adolescence

In Act Your Age: A Cultural Construction of Adolescence, Professor Lesko challenges the current socially constructed views of adolescence. She does so by providing a comparative analysis of contemporary teens to those from past generations. She includes assumptions from past eras that have assisted in the production of current constructs of adolescents, along with synthesized projections of how media, school, and policy have affected such views. Further, she provides a thorough examination of the social effects of political factors and sexuality, and their effects on society’s accepted views of today’s teens. As she presents prevailing interpretations of the time, she reveals general ideals of youth connected to the power relationships found in race, gender, and nation. With Act Your Age, Lesko justifiably presents her skepticism about some scientific approaches and understandings of psychological development, skepticisms that are not without warrant. As she does so, she furthers her main goal of uncovering why developmental psychology has acted as a canvas for painting a flawed masterpiece of adolescence, and why many inherently have integrated this erroneous masterpiece into their own constructed views of youth. As Lesko examines these issues in light of research addressed by many scholars, her social construct begins with the ‘‘trouble with teenagers’’ (Lesko 2012, p. 1). While she aims at debunking common misconceptions formed over the years about adolescents, her own views of adults are developed in accordance as well. Lesko urges adults to take responsibility for the modern conception of troubled teens due to scientific fault in biology and evidence of sociohistorical scrutiny in reasoning, using the image of the middle class white male as the ideal make of dominance. Later, Lesko also addresses minorities when describing the criminalization of African American and Latino male adolescents. Lesko provides substantial evidence to demonstrate how interwoven the growth of time and adolescence truly is and why the developmental construct is so resistant to change and critique. In addition, Lesko’s original motive for writing Act Your Age was to inspire other scholars to analyze and seek explanations to modern social constructs that have lacked attention and concern, like that of adolescence. Through Act Your Age, Lesko has accomplished her goal of urging adolescents and adults to peer deeper into the rationales behind their socially constructed appearances. In the first chapter, Lesko provides a historical context of the late nineteenth century in regards to adolescence, race, and nation. She offers extensive background information in support of her social construction of adolescence with regards to three revolutions: commercial, transportation, and industrial. With this background, this chapter becomes the basis of her argument stating that race, gender, and nationalism were at the heart of popular views of youth. The Great Chain of Being begins to describe just how Lesko believes the first psychological conception of youth began subconsciously. This theory provides support for a sociological hierarchy between animals or savages and the civilized, with the civilized at the top and the savages, encompassing women and barbarians at the bottom. Progress in this sense is evolutionarily based, with those capable of possessing reason at the top and degeneracy at the bottom. It is important to note that this initial subconscious view of race-based inferiority paved the way for scientific study of medicine, psychology, and biology. At this point, the reader may well seek a clear connection to adolescents. Finally, the reader finds that man began to J. Painter (&) Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, USA e-mail: jipainte@indiana.edu

Stress mitigation to promote development of prosocial values and school engagement of inner‐city urban African American and Latino youth.

Studies of predictors of development of young men of color have been primarily focused on factors that impede positive development rather than factors that promote it. There are also few examples of longitudinal studies of positive development of this population and few that consider multiple protective factors simultaneously. Little is also known about how such positive outcomes might relate to prediction of problematic functioning. This study tests a developmental-ecological framework of positive and risky development among a sample of young men of color growing up in high-risk urban environments. African American and Latino adolescent males (148 African American, 193 Latino) were followed from early to late adolescence. Stress in early adolescence was related to school engagement and prosocial values as well as depressive symptoms and problems assessed 2 years later. The role of family and individual protective factors as direct effects and as mitigating the stress-outcome relation were also tested. Stress predicted problem outcomes but not positive functioning. Early engagement in prosocial activities and coping skills did predict positive outcomes. In contrast, problem outcomes were predicted directly by stress, with some indication of interaction with some protective factors for both such outcomes. Overall results suggest value in focusing on positive outcomes along with negative outcomes, as they are not the antithesis and have some shared but some different predictors. Implications for supporting positive development are presented.