Latin Language Research Articles

Od nepismenosti do Univerziteta: Institucionalni razvoj albanskog obrazovanja na Kosovu 1945-1990

The education in the Albanian language in Kosovo was early, and it was developed depending on the political circumstances. For five centuries Albanians lived under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Since the Empire was organized in theocratic bases the education system was implemented in Ottoman, Greek and Latin language, consequently in meyteps, mosques, and churches. First schools in Albanian language were opened sometimes at the end of the nineteenth century. The Balkan Wars (1912-1913) created new circumstances in Balkans. A territory that comprises todays Kosovo felt under the Serbian occupation/rule. Since then and until the begging of the World War II the education in Albanian language was prohibited. Only religious Islamic schools were provided to Albanians, who consisted the majority of the population. During the World War II, for the sake of maintaining peace in these regions the fascism allowed education in the Albanian language, a process that lasted about three years. A number of Albanian teachers were brought from Albania to Kosovo in addition to educational texts. Despite this, the educational level of the Albanian population in Kosovo was low and equivalent to illiteracy. Organised and institutional education in the Albanian language in Kosovo began only in 1945. The period 1945-1966 marks initial steps to build an educational legal structure and efforts to organize education besides lack of staff and school buildings. The internal politic developments in Yugoslavia and emergence of Albanian factor in political balance provided a new era for Kosovo Albanians. Kosovo gained a large scale of autonomy and Albanian leadership used this opportunity to strengthen and advance the education in Albanian language in Kosovo. At the same time Kosovo went under an economic development and consequently the need for new trained staff required an educational system that comprised all levels of education, which was built gradually. This was known as a period of consolidation of the educational system and lasted from 1966 to 1980. The death of Tito and Demonstrations (1981) of Kosovo Albanians to upgrade the political status of Kosovo were followed by aggressive policy of the Yugoslavian Communistic League towards Albanians. Indeed political leaders and academic elites in Serbia stood behind that attitude. Their aim was to ruin the autonomy and to attack the intellectual elite in Kosovo who was seen as nationalistic driven one. A harsh campaign was launched against the education in Kosovo, with a focus on the destruction of the independence of the education system in Kosovo. This period covers years 1981-1990 and was known as “Pressure on the Albanian School”. The methodology used in this paper is a thematic-comparative approach supported by statistical methods and in accordance with chronology. As a conclusion, it appears that the will of the Albanian population for development and emancipation was reflected in overcoming all difficulties, whether political, administrative, logistical, etc., and illiteracy, to reach the establishment of the highest scientific and cultural institutions. On the other hand, the raising of the educational level influenced the articulation of Kosovo Albanians claims for political equality and national rights.

Resenha de Almeida Napoleão Mendes de Gramática Latina. 2024. Rio de Janeiro: CDB.

I offer in this text a review of Napoleão Mendes de Almeida's "Latin grammar", reprinted in 2024. I think that one of the social activities of classicists if to analyse critically didatic material that is on the market in order to contribute to its improvement in next reeditions. In this process, a critical review may help self-taught people and beginners in the learning of Latin language by providing them significant information about a book that is a well-kown editorial success,

Adaptive teaching: Latin and the use of digital parsing tools

Abstract The Initial Teacher Training (ITT) Common Core Framework (CCF) requires all teachers to adapt classroom teaching to support all students (Department for Education, 2024). While the Department for Education's previously-encouraged concept of ‘differentiation’ was well-intentioned, in that tasks were meant to be graded to support and develop all students' learning in a class where there were many different levels of prior attainment, it tended to mean that in practice in the classroom different tasks were often set to cater to the supposed different learning attributes of students. Differentiation has now been superseded by the concept of ‘adaptive teaching’. Adaptive teaching is characterised by teaching that takes account of the range in prior attainment of students and anticipates barriers to learning by providing resources or specific support so that they may all achieve the same intended outcomes. Classics teaching is often characterised by the reading of large amounts of text, both in the original languages of Latin or ancient Greek or in translation. Students in the Classics classroom contain a wide range of prior attainment, cultural experiences and may have barriers to learning, such as Special Educational Needs and Disabilities. This article presents findings of how the use of a blended language approach, involving the digital parsing tools in the Cambridge Latin Course and Suburani Latin course books, improved the quantity of translation of Latin achieved by students of mixed prior attainment and encouraged a more effective use of classroom time to develop deeper comprehension and understanding of the translated texts.

Can creative writing in Latin support students' confidence in and enjoyment of A Level prose composition?

Abstract This research aims to explore the ways in which creative writing may be used as a pedagogical tool in the Latin language classroom, in particular how creative writing may benefit students in Latin prose composition. The lesson sequence delivered as part of this research was undertaken in an academically-selective, independent coeducational school in an affluent, inner-metropolitan area. The sequence of four 60-minute lessons formed part of the language (as opposed to literature) portion of timetabled Latin lessons for a group of nine Year 12 students (aged 16–17). As part of their language lessons, the students had been following a course of study in prose composition based upon Andrew Leigh's (2019) Latin Prose Composition: A Guide from GCSE to A Level and Beyond1. The lesson sequence was intended to build on this work by making use of, and thus consolidating, grammatical constructions and vocabulary which the students had already encountered in the context of prose composition. The sequence was designed in such a way that students were required to apply their linguistic knowledge in new and creative ways. Students' responses to the various activities were positive and they expressed enjoyment in the methodologies.

Exploring Women's Health and Medical Treatment in Renaissance Italy Through Giovanni Marinello's Treatise

This article looks at a 16th-century medical book called Le medicine partenenti alle infermità delle donne by Giovanni Marinello (Venice, 1574), who wrote it intending to assist midwives and other delivery attendants in improving their professional practices. It is a very successful text that serves as an illustration of the rich body of treatises on women's diseases that were published in Europe in the sixteenth century and up until the first half of the seventeenth and which, despite disagreements and controversies, reflect a rekindled and passionate interest in medicine for the uniqueness of the female body that is beginning to diverge from the scholastic view of woman as an imperfect male. In addition, Marinello's work depicts the nature of contemporary daily life. It provides in great detail natural cures for sterility issues and all conditions related to pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum, always within the bounds of what is reasonable for a period defined by the ideas of the Council of Trent. The writings of Giovanni Marinello on women's diseases and cosmetics have two main advantages: first, they present traditional medical notions about female physiology and pathology in a way that is understandable through the use of colloquial language and an unpretentious style; second, they provide invaluable information on aspects of daily life. A significant portion of this practical book, which contains both prescribing and discursive material, is devoted to issues related to health and disease, the look of the body in life, pain, and methods to address these issues. Discussions include the human obligation to compete with natural rules, reflections on aesthetic canons and goals, and the interaction between nature and art or technology. The analysis of Marinello's texts focuses on both the form and the substance to make them accessible to a primarily female readership. The purpose of Marinello's three books, organized in a chronological order that starts with marriage and ends with childbirth, is to inform women of all the methods for maintaining their bodies and posses-sions. In the first book, we discuss eliminating all the annoying obstacles like urinary incontinence or lousy breath while discussing various sterility therapies in the seco- nd and pregnancy and childbirth in the third one. Despite the abundance of graphic and comprehensive erotic counsel, Marinello always sees it as an essential medical treatise while guaranteeing procreation. Mari- nello consequently highlights women's health through reproduction to safeguard the marriage and family unit. In addition to viewing health as the outcome of humoral balance, me- dieval medicine, based on the Hippocratic idea of humor, also consi- dered that physicians were responsible for aiding in the redemption of the soul alongside preachers (Jacquart & Thomasset, 1989; Lan, 1970). Especially when we consider that medical texts were written in Latin, a preferred language for disseminating science, until well into the seven- teenth and even the eighteenth century, the healing of diseases was associated with an unquestionable hermeticism, only accessible to spe- cialists, never to patients' objectives. As a counterpart to the idea of a Latin language associated with science, this study aims to present a guided reading of a work written in Italian, Le medicine partenenti alle enfermità delle donne, by Giovanni Marinello, the first to use his lan- guage instead of scientific Latin.

The application of non-Latin language data in traditional cross-border payments : A discussion

During the rapid development of globalisation observed over the last few decades, the English language has emerged as the default language for the communication of cross-border payments. Concurrently, the Latinisation of communication has resolved most of the problems related to the use of non-Latin languages. However, with the G20 cross-border payment roadmap promoting connectivity with local payment systems, this paper suggests that supporting the use of non- Latin language data in certain scenarios and transaction channels could improve the efficiency of cross-border payments and help enhance financial inclusion. This paper examines the use of language data in cross-border payments, reflects on how cross-border payments might support non-Latin language data, and makes relevant suggestions.

Language bias, not knowledge shortfall, underestimates the evidence of megafauna kill sites in South America

The Megafauna Kill Sites (MKS), with irrefutable empirical evidence of human-megafauna interactions over the late Quaternary, have widely been recognized in North America and historically overlooked in South America. Here, we systematically reviewed the MKS from the Americas and showed that the neglected evidence from South American MKS is as robust as or even more robust, in both quantity and quality, than the evidence from North America. However, the South American studies are often limited to low-reach publications (gray literature or local journals) written in Latin languages, which are less cited than English-written publications. Our findings clearly indicate that the neglect of South American MKS is due to its limited scientific impact caused by language bias, and not due to the lack of robust knowledge, inadequate data, or questionable evidence. To reverse this context and put the rich evidence of South American MKS on an international audience, we strongly recommend that South American researchers prioritize publishing their studies in English, the universal language of science since sec. XX. We also suggest making all archaeological evidence readily available in online databases, such as the KillSite database (www.killsitedatabase.com). We believe our recommendations align with the current scope of science, which predominantly operates in English and benefits from the widespread accessibility provided by the internet, and will help South American publications reach international audiences interested in human-megafauna interaction and animal exploitation.

Latin legal terminology in national jurisprudence: modern trends in the application of ancient concepts

The article is devoted to the study of the application of Latin legal terminology in Ukrainian jurisprudence. At the outset of the article, the author emphasizes on the correlation of Latin terminology with Roman law, as well as the significance of the reception of Roman law for the further preservation of Latinisms. Particular focus is given to the retrospective analysis of the incorporation of Latinisms into the Ukrainian language. The first trend highlighted by the author is the etymology of Latinisms in court decisions; the second is the Latinisation of legal terms in court decisions. The application of Latinisms in national and foreign scientific research is considered from the angles of (1) being conditioned by practical needs, (2) the element of citing normative provisions, (3) a way of preserving tradition, and (4) a stylistic tool. The article lists a large number of Roman legal terms that are actively applied by Ukrainian judges. At the same time, the author claims that not all Latin terms applied in jurisprudence are related to the sources of Roman law: firstly, some Latinisms date back to the Middle Ages, as well as the New and even Modern times; secondly, individual Latinisms express legal phenomena (principles, doctrines) that originally belonged to the Anglo-American legal tradition. At the same time, the Latin legal terminology applied in court decisions is very diverse and covers a number of legal phenomena. Particular attention is paid to the application in judicial practice of legal doctrines of different origins – Roman law (favor contractus, fraus creditorum) and common law (obiter dictum, per incuriam, ratio decidendi). In addition, the author calls the application of Latin language clichés in court decisions one of the distinct trends in Ukrainian jurisprudence, which can contribute to the accuracy of the presentation, brevity and comprehensibility of the text, as well as the standardisation of the language of law. The author summarises that the application of Latin legal terms by national courts is an absolutely logical process, which indicates the further integration of national jurisprudence into global processes and trends occurring in world jurisprudence.

A Metaphor to Build Empires: Imitatio and the Politics of Representation in European Humanism

In Western criticism and philosophy, Renaissance discussions of imitation have often been seen as both a legacy of Greece and Rome, and as the foundation of modern theories of art and literature. This investigation shows that the discussions of imitation that spread throughout the Renaissance were indeed adopted from Latin Roman discussions of poetry and rhetoric, but they have no connection to the famous Greek philosophical concepts of mimesis/imitation that are found in the work of Plato and Aristotle. Indeed, European concepts of imitatio/ imitation, as this study shows, developed their conceptual potential before Plato’s and Aristotle’s discussions of mimesis became familiar in Europe. Furthermore, Renaissance discussions of imitation were not theories of art and literature, as is commonly believed. They were simply an educational pedagogy that organized the appropriation of the canons of description of classical Latin into the vernaculars. The peculiarity and the scale of this pedagogy become evident when located within its geopolitical context. In the early modern era, neither the dead Latin language nor the vernaculars were equipped to manage the wealth or the administrative and cultural needs of ascending European states. Like Rome at the height of its power, European states were emerging empires in need of a language and a culture. And just like the Romans resorted to the imitation of Greek masterpieces in order to develop their language, Europeans advocated the imitation of Latin masterpieces to develop their vernaculars. But while the Romans resorted to imitatio often with resentment and bitterness at the impossibility to match the Greek achievement, European humanists considered imitatio to have been a resounding success [sic]. By adopting the Roman practice of imitatio, European cultures appropriated and internalized Roman ambivalence without solving or even identifying it.

Латынь и церковнославянский как языки «ученого духовенства»: к истории духовного образования в XVIII веке

In the XVIII century, the clergy went through the most important processes related to the formation of the estate; the creation of a system of spiritual education plays an important role in this process. We will look at how the idea of literacy and scholarship as mandatory components of self-image was formed among the clergy, and how the languages included in these ideas have changed over the century. Having analyzed "literacy" and "scholarship" as elements of state regulation of the number of clergy, we will consider the concepts of literacy focused on the Church Slavonic language and literature, and their transformation after the spread of regular seminary "Latin" education. The material of archival documents allows you to see the assessment of the literacy of children of the clergy at admission to the seminary, as well as to understand exactly what skills were included in this assessment. Next, we reconstruct the semantic shift that has been taking place in the attitude of the clergy to seminary education over the course of a century: what kind of learning outcomes did the parents of seminarians expect when sending their children to educational institutions, and how these formulations have changed over the century. The system of spiritual education turns out to be built in such a way as to have priority over home schooling, and Latin is in the focus of attention as the main "filter" that allows separating the "learned" clergy from the "unlearned", i.e. "illiterate. But with the spread of seminary education, the status of "scholarship" begins to be associated no longer with the Latin language, but with less common languages: European (French and German) and "theological" (Greek and Hebrew).

Terminological Metaphor: Ontology, Gnoseology, Deontology

The communion between man and the universe is a benchmark for meditation on existential values, reflecting human complexity: body, soul, and spirit. Metaphor, present in all fields, indicates intellectual performance, being a distinct characteristic of the human spirit. Terminological metaphor, a relatively new concept, transfers meaning from a concrete domain to an abstract one, based on analogy (association) and conceptual differences. Researchers identify the cognitive and structural functions of conceptual metaphor. In the language system, metaphors impose their own conceptual models, providing terms with functional capacity. Metaphorization is a universal cognitive phenomenon. The article proposes to approach terminological metaphor from ontological, epistemological, and deontological perspectives in elucidating the phenomenon of specialized metaphorization, using as benchmarks loan terms from modern languages of scholarly formation, Greek and Latin.

What’s in a Name? Hellenic Origins of Microbiological Nomenclature

Our intention was to trace the origins of names that every microbiologist comes to pronounce or write down in her/his daily practice and, particularly, to elucidate the etymological debt of this medical field to the two great languages of classical antiquity, Greek and Latin. According to the system of binomial nomenclature established by Linnaeus in the 1750s to give a unique name to each species, consisting of two terms, the name of the genus and the name of the species, combinations were based on Greek and Latin. The two major cocci consist of a literally classical example. Streptococci, named so by Bilroth from the Greek word “στρεπτόν—strepton” (necklace), and staphylococci, baptised by Ogston from “staphyli—σταφύλι” (grape), were both so named due to their appearance under microscopy. Two well-known species of these genera bear Latin names denoting colour, greenish for S. viridans and golden for S. aureus. Other bacteria display the discovering scientist like, E. coli for Escherich, Brucella from Bruce, or Pasteurella from Louis Pasteur. Similar pathways also exist for viruses, even back to Hippocrates, like Herpesviruses from “έρπης—herpes” (creeping) or Arenaviruses from “arena—sand”, and fungi, as mycology itself originates from “μύκης—myces”, Greek for fungus, and Aspergillus from the verb “aspergo” (to sprinkle).

Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės viešieji notarai XVI amžiaus kryžkelėse: nuo 1512 metų Europos notariato nuostatų iki Antrojo Lietuvos Statuto

The Imperial Notary Ordinance, which began being written in the late fifteenth century, not only further cemented the statements set forth in Ars notariae, but also fundamentally transformed the status of notariat, declaring the notariat a governmental institution. According to the opinion of Notariat experts, this Ordinance that was declared in 1512 is fundamental for having the main professional characteristics of the contemporary Latin notariat. This similarity also outlines the continuity of modern European notariat.Lithuanian society in the beginning of the sixteenth century lived with a notariat that was not fully developed, since, only after receiving the right from the Pope in 1501, public notaries began being nominated in the Vilnius diocese. During the first half of the sixteenth century, the development of notariat was visible particularly in the dioceses of GDL. This was to be expected, knowing that the notariat was established in GDL through the Church. Notariat developed in the secular government only as much as there was cooperation with and participation of diocesal notaries public, by serving in the office of a ruler or a voivod. We can observe a tendency in the beginning of the sixteenth century of secularization of the notaries public – they would switch to service in a purely secular office after leaving the clergy and/or becoming supporters of the Reformation. At the same time, similarly to Poland, in the later half of fifteenth century and onwards, Lithuania saw the rise of notaries with apostolic mandate, which declared the primacy of the Pope’s rule. We think, that the Notary Ordinance of 1512, could have had impact (negative?) to the further development of GDL notariat. Firstly by raising the questions of political loyalty and personal choice in regards to which highest authority to obey – the Pope’s or the emperor’s, ecclesiastical or secular.During research we acknowledge that both the First and the Second Statutes of Lithuania could have been partially influenced by the Notary Ordinance by notaries public participating in their conception. Thanks to them, articles regarding the Roman law have been created. The removal of Latin language as the written language of the courts by the Second Statute was not beneficial to the Roman notariat and a serious challenge to the notaries public and to the further development of notariat in GDL. The New Statute became an opportunity for the secular notariat to form as a legal institute. However, for it to happen there had to be further political decisions in support of it, there had to have been the right conditions and enough time to prepare qualified specialists and for the society to be prepared to trust those specialists.

Концепция души христианских учителей Ранней Церкви

The article is devoted to the teachings about the soul, which were developed in the early Christian tradition before the 4th century. There is no shortage of research on this topic, how-ever, in this article, firstly, no attempt is made to develop a uni-versal patristic teaching, but, on the contrary, an overview of the entire variety of ideas that were formed in the Early Church is give; secondly, the observation is made that the opinion ac-cepted among scientists about the unconditional adherence of Christian authors to one or the other philosophical schools are not supported by the sources. Christian writers argue with their contemporary philosophy, and at the same time rely more on the authority of St. Scriptures and the church tradition, creative-ly reworking the philosophical heritage. Christians use only the general idea of the soul, which was developed by the Greek philosophical schools. Idealistic teaching was spread among the Hellenized Jews of the Diaspora. Christian church teachers used both the «Platonic» immaterial concept of the soul, as well as the «Aristotelian» materialistic one. The author of the article concludes that the choice in favor of one or another model de-pended more on regional specifics. In those provinces of the West and East where the degree of Hellenization was higher, there is a greater attraction to Platonic idealism. On the contra-ry, in Roman North Africa, where Hellenistic culture did not spread, and as the local population as a whole tended to reli-gious literalism and materialism, typical for Punic culture, the materialistic doctrine of the soul also spread. Since it is in Ro-man Africa that Latin Christianity was born, it is in it that Christian materialism would develop. It is precisely caused by cultural specifics of the Mediterranean regions, and not by the difference in Greek and Latin languages, that is usually esti-mated as a core factor of the split between teachings of the soul in the Eastern and Western Christian thought.

An Exploration of An Introduction to the Latin Tongue

Books are more than texts: as cultural and historical objects they speak to us beyond the words printed on their pages. The physical and material aspects of a book can tell us much about its production, use, and unique life story. This bibliographical study examines an 18th-century book on Latin language learning, held in the rare book collection of the John M. Kelly Library at St. Michael’s College at the University of Toronto. Taking Philip Gaskell’s A New Introduction to Bibliography, first published in 1972, and other bibliographic literature as the key theoretical foundation, this paper systematically explores the book’s material aspects including paper, binding, user signs, and print errors. This paper listens to what the object has to say, allowing it to divulge clues about how this specific book copy was created, used, and preserved. In so doing, it explores the wider benefits that material studies have to offer for book historians.

ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ЗМІШАНОГО НАВЧАННЯ В УМОВАХ ВІЙНИ

The article deals with the issues of applying mixed learning techniques for the formation of the students’ professional competence at higher medical educational institutions under wartime conditions. It is found out the essence of the concept of “mixed learning”, its peculiarities, methods, advantages and disadvantages, which must be taken into account to train a future healthcare worker. The need of mastering mixed learning basic techniques for the correct organization of the educational process is emphasized. English communicative approach to medical students’ professional competence is an integral aspect of professionally oriented study at the higher medical educational institution. Military actions in the country require the application of new principles and practices of higher medical education transformation. Therefore, the issue of mixed education for students of medical institutions of higher education under wartime conditions is one of the most crucial problems in Ukraine. Attention is focused on the need to organize and establish a high-quality educational process in the conditions of war using distance model of education. The issues of semantic content for English for Specific Purposes, selection of training material, and development of communicative component in the process of students’ mastering English language skills in the process of distance learning in the conditions of war are under consideration. Both theoretical and methodological aspects of mixed learning for mastering English for Specific Purposes and the Latin language, which are studied through combining the organic application of modern distance learning technologies, are covered. The main distance learning technologies using the MS Teams and Moodle platforms are characterized. The use of information technologies of mixed learning under wartime conditions at professionally targeted classes of English and Latin has been found to develop speech skills and abilities that make possible to express an opinion, develop thinking, as well as to have high motivational characteristics, taking into account the realities of today.

Basic Introduction to Pegon Writing at MTs Walisongo 2 students Krandegan Hamlet, Sukomakmur Village, Kajoran District, Magelang Regency

Learning to read and write in Arabic Pegon is not just a skill reserved for students in Islamic boarding schools, but it can also be an additional insight for students who have never learned it or are unfamiliar with it. The purpose of introducing the basics of Pegon writing is to facilitate students in understanding the yellow books (traditional Islamic texts). Additionally, this activity aims to cultivate students' enthusiasm for embracing the traditions of scholars and Islamic boarding schools, so they are not easily influenced by foreign cultures with their Latin language instruments. This community service adopted the ABCD approach, which consists of five main stages: Discovery, Dream, Design, Define, and Destiny. As a result of the learning activities provided with the ABCD approach, students were able to master the patterns of Pegon Arabic writing and apply them in understanding the texts according to the existing rules, as well as read them correctly. Thus, the introduction to basic Pegon writing at Walisongo 2 Junior High School served as an initial foundation for seventh-grade students to master the skills of reading and writing Arabic Pegon, enabling them to be prepared to study yellow books such as Fiqh, Tajwid, and Tauhid. Consequently, in the following grades, seventh-grade students will find it easier to understand yellow books both in reading and writing

The Role of automated translation and its limitations

The study aims to highlight the role of machine and its limitations in the service of translator, and to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and translation memories in light of some examples from Google translator with the two languages combinations from Arabic into English and vice versa, by highlighting the important role that the machine translation played in the era of technology on the one hand. The study also concludes through exploring the reality of machine translation limitations, to determine its negative points, most notably that: machine translation is enable to translate idiomatic expressions, collocations and specialized language or the language for a specific purposes (terms), in addition to the inerrability of machine translation without the intervention of a human translator to adapt it, however, it has been noted a positive results about machine translation in either a general and simple sentences or in proximate languages (Latin languages for example). In conclusion, the study found that machine translation can’t replace a human translation but it can in the same time help him for saving time, energy and financing, particularly in the technology era as all fields.

WHO INVENTED WHAT? EXPLORING THE ROLE OF THE NORTH WESTERN SEMITIC ALPHABET UPON THE FORMATION OF MODERN EUROPEAN LANGUAGES

It is an accepted fact that, with some exceptions, the ancient Greek and Latin languages served as the basis for the formation of most of the Western (modern) languages. However, what remains less known is that the Greeks borrowed the alphabet letters from the North-Western Semitic alphabet of the 2nd millenium BCE. This alphabet was used by Phoenicians, Arameans, Hebrews and the Moabites beginning with the early second millenium and was borrowed by the early Greeks from Phoenician merchants in the later part of the second millenium and the beginning of the first millenium BCE. In this article we will explore the issue of the revolutionary contribution that the North-Western semitic alphabet had upon the cultures of the Ancient Near East (including Egypt, Canaan, Mesopotamia and Siria).2 The transition from a system that used hundreds of pictograms and signs (the cuneiform and hierogliphic alphabets) to an alphabet of only 22 linear letters marked one of the most important, yet neglected, innovations in ancient history. The purpose of our article is to draw on both ancient and contemporary scholarship in order to show how this revolutionary alphabet influenced the Greek and Latin alphabets (and implicitly the languages themselves) and the impact that this event had upon the formation of the modern European languages.

Alternation in Some Encodings of Secondary Predicates in Latin: Overview and a Sample Proposal on an Issue under Discussion

This paper offers a comprehensive and critical review of the most significant studies on the possible alternation between two specific encodings that can express, in a generic sense, the Manner in which a verbal process is developed: adverbial expressions (ADV) and Secondary Predicates (SP). The main types of SP/ADV to be addressed here are those which are Subject and/or event oriented. Both general and typological works will be taken into account, as well as others more focused on the Latin language; the central criterion of the study will essentially be to distinguish and analyse approaches which are more or less favourable to seeing the two types of constituents as equivalent. A section devoted to the work of one of the Latinists who has contributed most specifically and notably to the issue under discussion (H. Pinkster) will also be included. Following a critical review of the criteria which have the greatest explanatory potential for explaining the issue, some analytical approaches will be proposed which are as objective as possible for a subsequent corpus study; these criteria include parameters pertaining to different linguistic levels: syntax, lexical-semantics, pragmatics, etc.: their application — here only tentatively discussed — will provide clear and measurable results on the problem and on those questions arising from the critical review itself.