Lateral Hypothalamic Activity Research Articles

Tesofensine, a novel antiobesity drug, silences GABAergic hypothalamic neurons.

Obesity is a major global health epidemic that has adverse effects on both the people affected as well as the cost to society. Several anti-obesity drugs that target GLP-1 receptors have recently come to the market. Here, we describe the effects of tesofensine, a novel anti-obesity drug that acts as a triple monoamine neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitor. Using various techniques, we investigated its effects on weight loss and underlying neuronal mechanisms in mice and rats. These include behavioral tasks, DeepLabCut videotaped analysis, electrophysiological ensemble recordings, optogenetic activation, and chemogenetic silencing of GABAergic neurons in the Lateral Hypothalamus (LH). We found that tesofensine induces a greater weight loss in obese rats than lean rats, while differentially modulating the neuronal ensembles and population activity in LH. In Vgat-ChR2 and Vgat-IRES-cre transgenic mice, we found for the first time that tesofensine inhibited a subset of LH GABAergic neurons, reducing their ability to promote feeding behavior, and chemogenetically silencing them enhanced tesofensine's food-suppressing effects. Unlike phentermine, a dopaminergic appetite suppressant, tesofensine causes few, if any, head-weaving stereotypy at therapeutic doses. Most importantly, we found that tesofensine prolonged the weight loss induced by 5-HTP, a serotonin precursor, and blocked the body weight rebound that often occurs after weight loss. Behavioral studies on rats with the tastant sucrose indicated that tesofensine's appetite suppressant effects are independent of taste aversion and do not directly affect the perception of sweetness or palatability of sucrose. In summary, our data provide new insights into the effects of tesofensine on weight loss and the underlying neuronal mechanisms, suggesting that tesofensine may be an effective treatment for obesity and that it may be a valuable adjunct to other appetite suppressants to prevent body weight rebound.

Characterizing brain stage-dependent pupil dynamics based on lateral hypothalamic activity.

Pupil dynamics presents varied correlation features with brain activity under different vigilant levels. The modulation of brain dynamic stages can arise from the lateral hypothalamus (LH), where diverse neuronal cell types contribute to arousal regulation in opposite directions via the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). However, the relationship of the LH and pupil dynamics has seldom been investigated. Here, we performed local field potential (LFP) recordings at the LH and ACC, and whole-brain fMRI with simultaneous fiber photometry Ca2+ recording in the ACC, to evaluate their correlation with brain state-dependent pupil dynamics. Both LFP and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data showed various correlations to pupil dynamics across trials that span negative, null, and positive correlation values, demonstrating brain state-dependent coupling features. Our results indicate that the correlation of pupil dynamics with ACC LFP and whole-brain fMRI signals depends on LH activity, suggesting a role of the latter in brain dynamic stage regulation.

Anandamide improves food intake and orexinergic neuronal activity in the chronic sleep deprivation induction model in rats by modulating the expression of the CB1 receptor in the lateral hypothalamus

Sleep deprivation alters orexinergic neuronal activity in the lateral hypothalamus (LH), which is the main regulator of sleep-wake, arousal, appetite, and energy regulation processes. Cannabinoid receptor (CBR) expression in this area is involved in modulating the function of orexin neurons. In this study, we investigated the effects of endocannabinoid anandamide (AEA) administration on improving food intake and appetite by modulating the activity of orexin neurons and CB1R expression after chronic sleep deprivation. Adult male Wistar rats (200–250 g) were randomly divided into three groups: control + vehicle (Control), chronic sleep deprivation + vehicle (SD), and chronic sleep deprivation +20 mg/kg AEA (SD + A). For SD induction, the rats were kept in a sleep deprivation device for 18 h (7 a.m. to 1 a.m.) daily for 21 days. Weight gain, food intake, the electrical power of orexin neurons, CB1R mRNA expression in hypothalamus, CB1R protein expression in the LH, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-4 levels and antioxidant activity in hypothalamus were measured after SD induction. Our results showed that AEA administration significantly improved food intake (p < 0.01), Electrical activity of orexin neurons (p < 0.05), CB1R expression in the hypothalamus (p < 0.05), and IL-4 levels (p < 0.05). AEA also reduced mRNA expression of OX1R and OX2R (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05 respectively), also IL-6 and TNF-α (p < 0.01) and MDA level (p < 0.05) in hypothalamic tissue. As a consequence, AEA modulates orexinergic system function and improves food intake by regulating the expression of the CB1 receptor in the LH in sleep deprived rats.

Trigeminal nerve electrical stimulation: An effective arousal treatment for loss of consciousness

BackgroundTo determine if trigeminal nerve electrical stimulation (TNS) would be an effective arousal treatment for loss of consciousness (LOC), we applied neuroscientific methods to investigate the role of potential brain circuit and neuropeptide pathway in regulating level of consciousness. MethodsConsciousness behavioral analysis, Electroencephalogram (EEG) recording, Chemogenetics, Microarray analysis, Milliplex MAP rat peptide assay, Chromatin immune-precipitation (ChIP), Dual-luciferase reporter experiment, Western blot, PCR and Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). ResultsTNS can markedly activate the neuronal activities of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and the spinal trigeminal nucleus (Sp5), as well as improve rat consciousness level and EEG activities. Then we proved that LH activation and upregulated neuropeptide hypocretin are beneficial for promotion of consciousness recovery. We then applied gene microarray experiment and found hypocretin might be mediated by a well-known transcription factor Early growth response gene 1 (EGR1), and the results were confirmed by ChIP and Dual-luciferase reporter experiment. ConclusionThis study illustrates that TNS is an effective arousal strategy Treatment for LOC state via the activation of Sp5 and LH neurons and upregulation of hypocretin expression.

Investigating the role of the amygdala orexin receptor 1 in memory acquisition and extinction in a rat model of PTSD

Understanding the mechanisms underlying memory is essential for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Orexin, as a lateral hypothalamic (LH) neuropeptide, interferes with the stages of memory, primarily through the orexin receptor1 (Orx1R). The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of amygdala Orx1R in the acquisition and extinction processes of PTSD modeled in animals.In three experiments, rats were divided into three groups: control (Naïve), shock (receiving a foot shock), and PTSD (experiencing Single prolonged stress (SPS) method). The first experiment aimed to evaluate LH activity in PTSD modeled rats. The second and third experiments aimed to evaluate the effects of Orx1R in the acquisition and extinction of fear memory in PTSD modeled animals. SB334867 (SB) or its solvent was microinjected into the amygdala and the rats were subjected to conditioning thereafter. In the second group, we used a single injection after conditioning. In the third group, we used three consecutive injections (one after each memory test). Some behaviors and Orx1R expression were evaluated.The freezing response was significantly longer in the PTSD group than on the control. Similarly, anxiety and sensitized fear were also intensified. CFos expression levels in LH was higher in the PTSD group. Inhibition of Orx1R in the amygdala significantly decreased memory acquisition, diminished anxiety, and decreased the sensitized fear in the SB group. Applying SB to the amygdala after each fear memory test significantly decreased freezing. Expression of Orx1R was significantly higher following fear conditioning.These results indicate a likely involvement of the orexin and amygdalar Orx1R in memory acquisition and in extinction of PTSD.

A bidirectional network for appetite control in larval zebrafish.

Medial and lateral hypothalamic loci are known to suppress and enhance appetite, respectively, but the dynamics and functional significance of their interaction have yet to be explored. Here we report that, in larval zebrafish, primarily serotonergic neurons of the ventromedial caudal hypothalamus (cH) become increasingly active during food deprivation, whereas activity in the lateral hypothalamus (LH) is reduced. Exposure to food sensory and consummatory cues reverses the activity patterns of these two nuclei, consistent with their representation of opposing internal hunger states. Baseline activity is restored as food-deprived animals return to satiety via voracious feeding. The antagonistic relationship and functional importance of cH and LH activity patterns were confirmed by targeted stimulation and ablation of cH neurons. Collectively, the data allow us to propose a model in which these hypothalamic nuclei regulate different phases of hunger and satiety and coordinate energy balance via antagonistic control of distinct behavioral outputs.

Heterogeneity in the circadian and homeostatic modulation of multiunit activity in the lateral hypothalamus.

The lateral hypothalamus (LH) is a relatively large hypothalamic structure containing several neurochemically different, but spatially intermingled, neuronal populations. While the role of these neurons in the homeostatic regulation of diverse physiological and behavioral functions such as sleep/wake cycle has been studied extensively, the impact of sleep history on the electrophysiology of the LH and whether this effect is homogenous across LH is unknown. By combining multiunit activity (MUA) recordings in different regions of LH with electroencephalogram recordings in freely moving rats, we unravelled a heterogeneity of neural-activity patterns within different subregions of LH. This heterogeneity was evident in both the circadian and the vigilance state-dependent modulation of MUA. Interestingly, and consistent with this heterogeneity under baseline conditions, the magnitude of MUA suppression following 6 hr of sleep deprivation (SD) was also different within different locations of LH. Unlike the cortex and in contrast to the predictions of the synaptic homeostatic hypothesis, no correlation was found between the magnitude of activity increase during SD and the percentage of suppression of MUA during recovery sleep. These data provide in vivo evidence of a functional heterogeneity in the circadian and homeostatic modulation of neuronal activity in LH.

Lateral hypothalamic activity indicates hunger and satiety states in humans.

Lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) local field potentials (LFPs) were recorded in a Prader–Willi patient undergoing deep brain stimulation (DBS) for obesity. During hunger, exposure to food‐related cues induced an increase in beta/low‐gamma activity. In contrast, recordings during satiety were marked by prominent alpha rhythms. Based on these findings, we have delivered alpha‐frequency DBS prior to and during food intake. Despite reporting an early sensation of fullness, the patient continued to crave food. This suggests that the pattern of activity in LHA may indicate hunger/satiety states in humans but attest to the complexity of conducting neuromodulation studies in obesity.

Chemogenetic activation of the lateral hypothalamus reverses early life stress-induced deficits in motivational drive.

Altered motivated behaviour is a cardinal feature of several neuropsychiatric conditions including mood disorders. One well-characterized antecedent to the development of mood disorders is exposure to early life stress (ELS). A key brain substrate controlling motivated behaviour is the lateral hypothalamus (LH). Here, we examined the effect of ELS on LH activation and the motivation to self-administer sucrose. We tested whether chemogenetic activation of LH circuits could modify sucrose responding in ELS rats and examined the impact on LH cell populations. Male rat pups were maternally separated for 0 or 3h on postnatal days 2-14. During adolescence, rats received bilateral injections of hM3D(Gq), the excitatory designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs, into LH. In adulthood, rats were trained to self-administer sucrose and tested under a progressive ratio schedule to determine their motivation for reward following injection with either vehicle or 5mg/kg clozapine-N-oxide. Brains were processed for Fos-protein immunohistochemistry. ELS significantly suppressed lever responding for sucrose, indicating a long-lasting impact of ELS on motivation circuits. hM3D(Gq) activation of LH increased responding, normalizing deficits in ELS rats, and increased Fos-positive orexin and MCH cell numbers within LH. Our findings indicate that despite being susceptible to environmental stressors, LH circuits retain the capacity to overcome ELS-induced deficits in motivated behaviour.

Cue-induced food seeking after punishment is associated with increased Fos expression in the lateral hypothalamus and basolateral and medial amygdala.

In humans, relapse to unhealthy eating habits following dieting is a significant impediment to obesity treatment. Food-associated cues are one of the main triggers of relapse to unhealthy eating during self-imposed abstinence. Here we report a behavioral method examining cue-induced relapse to food seeking following punishment-induced suppression of food taking. We trained male rats to lever press for food pellets that were delivered after a 10-s conditional stimulus (CS) (appetitive). Following training, 25% of reinforced lever presses resulted in the presentation of a compound stimulus consisting of a novel CS (aversive) and the appetitive CS followed by a pellet and footshock. After punishment-imposed abstinence, we tested the rats in an extinction test where lever pressing resulted in the presentation of either the appetitive or aversive CS. We then compared activity of lateral hypothalamus (LH) and associated extrahypothalamic regions following this test. We also assessed Fos expression in LH orexin and GABA neurons. We found that cue-induced relapse of food seeking on test was higher in rats tested with the appetitive CS compared to the aversive CS. Relapse induced by the appetitive CS was associated with increased Fos expression in LH, caudal basolateral amygdala (BLA), and medial amygdala (MeA). This relapse was also associated with increased Fos expression in LH orexin and VGAT-expressing neurons. These data show that relapse to food seeking can be induced by food-associated cues after punishment-imposed abstinence, and this relapse is associated with increased activity in LH, caudal BLA, and MeA. (PsycINFO Database Record

The central anorexigenic mechanism of adrenocorticotropic hormone involves the caudal hypothalamus in chicks

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), consisting of 39 amino acids, is most well-known for its involvement in an organism's response to stress. It also participates in satiety, as exogenous ACTH causes decreased food intake in rats. However, its anorexigenic mechanism is not well understood in any species and its effect on appetite is not reported in the avian class. Thus, the present study was designed to evaluate central ACTH's effect on food intake and to elucidate the mechanism mediating this response using broiler chicks. Chicks that received intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of 1, 2, or 4nmol of ACTH reduced food intake, under both ad libitum and 180min fasted conditions. Water intake was also reduced in ACTH-injected chicks under both feeding conditions, but when measured without access to feed it was not affected. Blood glucose was not affected in either feeding condition. Following ACTH injection, c-Fos immunoreactivity was quantified in key appetite-associated hypothalamic nuclei including the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), dorsomedial hypothalamus, lateral hypothalamus (LH), arcuate nucleus (ARC) and the parvo- and magno-cellular portions of the paraventricular nucleus. ACTH-injected chicks had increased c-Fos immunoreactivity in the VMH, LH, and ARC. Hypothalamus was collected at 1h post-injection, and real-time PCR performed to measure mRNA abundance of some appetite-associated factors. Neuropeptide Y, pro-opiomelanocortin, glutamate decarboxylase 1, melanocortin receptors 2–5, and urocortin 3 mRNA abundance was not affected by ACTH treatment. However, expression of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), urotensin 2 (UT), agouti-related peptide (AgRP), and orexin (ORX), and melanocortin receptor 1 (MC1R) mRNA decreased in the hypothalamus of ACTH-injected chicks. In conclusion, ICV ACTH causes decreased food intake in chicks, and is associated with VMH, LH, and ARC activation, and a decrease in hypothalamic mRNA abundance of CRF, UT, AgRP, ORX and MC1R.

L-threonine injection into PPC modifies food intake, lateral hypothalamic activity, and sympathetic discharge.

Food intake and the firing rate of lateral hypothalamic neurons and nerves innervating interscapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT), along with IBAT and colonic temperatures, were monitored in male Sprague-Dawley rats fed a threonine-free diet. These variables were measured before and after a bilateral injection of L-threonine (2 nmol into each side) into the prepiriform cortex (PPC). The same variables were also monitored in 1) rats fed a threonine-free diet and injected with saline, 2) animals fed a standard diet and injected with L-threonine, and 3) rats fed a standard diet and injected with saline. The results showed that injection of L-threonine into PPC increases food intake and firing rate of lateral hypothalamic neurons, whereas it decreases the sympathetic discharge and body temperature in animals fed a threonine-free diet. No changes were found in the animals fed a standard diet. These findings suggest a correlation between 1) threonine level in the PPC and 2) lateral hypothalamic activity and sympathetic discharge to IBAT.

Modulation of lateral hypothalamic activity by olfactory bulb and sciatic stimulation

Lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) single unit activity (extracellular) was studied in response to electrical stimulation of the olfactory bulb (OB) or sciatic nerve in adult albino rats ( n = 39) anesthetized with dialurethane. Olfactory stimulation resulted in a greater proportion of LHA units showing inhibitory rather than excitatory responses, while sciatic nerve stimulation resulted in similar proportions of units showing inhibitory and excitatory responses. Of the 76 LHA units tested with both OB and sciatic nerve stimulation. 36% responded to both stimulation sites. 18% responded only to OB stimulation, 26% responded only to sciatic nerve stimulation, and 20% were unresponsive to either stimulation. The locations of responsive units were diffuse throughout the LHA sampled. The response characteristics of LHA neurons to external sensory stimulation are consistent with the anatomy and putative integrative functions of this brain region.

Raised excitability produced in cortical neurons by reinforced stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus

Response was recorded in the pyramidal tract (PT) under three experimental situations modelling the shaping of conditioned reflex (CR) during experiments on unrestrained but unanesthetized rabbits. The first paradigm consisted of direct stimulation of two points on the sensorimotor cortex, the second of the same stimuli combine with electrical stimulation (used as additional reinforcement) of the lateral hypothalamus (LH), and the third of LH stimulation in response to a rise occurring in PT response to above control level (modelling instrumental CR). An overall increase in the monosynaptic wave indicative of altered efficacy of synaptic connections was most commonly observed under all these conditions. Increase in the component directly reflecting pyramidal neuronal excitation appeared significantly more pronounced in the second and third than in the first experimental paradigm. The data obtained would point to reinforced efficacy of excitatory synaptic connections as the principal mechanism of CR, while the changed quality of electrical excitability at the membrane of cortical neurons reflects mechanisms underlying the contribution of reinforcement triggered by LH activation in cortical reordering of the motivational/emotional component of reinforcement.

Monoamine transmitter activity in lateral hypothalamus during its perfusion with insulin or 2-DG in sated and fasted rat

A unique profile of neurochemical events is proposed to occur in the diencephalon which is contingent upon the nutrient status of the animal. In this first of a series of investigations, we selected the lateral hypothalamus (LH) in order to determine its specific resting profile of monoaminergic neurotransmitters and their principal metabolites. The neuronal pattern of activity was studied during sated and fasted conditions as well as during a local glucoprivic challenge to the LH. After permanent guide cannulae for push-pull perfusion were implanted in female Sprague-Dawley rats, the LH was perfused repeatedly with an artificial CSF, at a rate of 20μl/min, in order to collect a series of 5.0 min samples. Aliquots of each perfusate were assayed directly using a high performance liquid chromatography system with electrochemical detection (HPLC-EC) for pg/μl concentrations of norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT). In comparison to the basal levels of amines during the sated condition, when the rat was food-deprived for 20–22 hr, the release of NE, DA, and 5-HT was significantly lower than that observed under the sated condition. Further, the turnover of NE in the LH was concurrently attenuated as reflected by the lower levels of MHPG in the perfusate, thus demonstrating the modification in catecholamine activity produced in the LH by the condition of hunger. When either 10 μg/μl 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) or 4.0 mU/μl insulin was incorporated into the CSF perfused in the LH, the efflux of DA was significantly enhanced independent of the state of satiation. In addition, the proportion of both NE and DA to 5-HT was likewise increased by either of these centrally acting substances, while the turnover of 5-HT was enhanced and NE and DA turnovers were reduced. Perfusion of 2-DG in the LH of the fasted rat caused a significant reduction in catecholemine turnover in terms of MHPG/NE, VMA/NE, DOPAC/DA and HVA/DA ratios. Moreover, 2-DG increased NE/5-HT while lowering the NE/DA ratio, and enhanced simultaneously the 5-HTOL/5-HT ratio. In the sated rat, 2-DG attenuated the release of 5-HT from the animal's LH, whereas insulin caused a shift in the proportions of NE/5-HT and DA/5-HT. Further, the peptide served to reduce the efflux of 5-HT, enhanced the turnover of 5-HT while diminishing DA turnover, and shifted the metabolism of NE from MHPG to VMA. Overall, these results demonstrate the extent of the multiple changes which occur simultaneously in the circumscribed release and turnover of 5-HT, NE and DA in the LH of the rat when it is fasted. Each of the locally delivered neuronal challenges exerts an equally distinct effect on the basic pattern of activity of the monoamine neurotransmitters. The functional significance of this neurochemical profile in the hypothalamic mechanisms underlying the control of feeding and hunger is discussed.

Catecholaminergic mechanisms of feeding-related lateral hypothalamic activity in the monkey

The functional role of the catecholaminergic mechanism in the lateral hypothalamus (LHA), in feeding behavior of the monkey was investigated by single neuron activity recording and electrophoretic application of dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NA) and their antagonists. The feeding paradigm had 4 phases: (1) cue light (CL) signaled start of bar press; (2) bar press (BP, 20–30 times); (3) short cue tone (CT) triggered by last bar press signaled presentation of food; and (4) ingestion-reward (RW). Of 312 neurons tested, 189 (61%) responded in one or more phases of the feeding task. Two types of response were observed: CL- or CT-related transient, and BP- or RW-related long-lasting responses. These feeding-related responses depended on the nature of the food and on the hunger-satiety level. DA excited or inhibited different neurons, while NA mainly inhibited firing. DA-sensitive neurons responded more often in the feeding task than insensitive neurons due mainly to differences in responsiveness to CL on (X 2test, P< 0.01), at motor initiation, and during BP (P < 0.05). Spiperone blocked the former two responses. NA-sensitive neurons responded more often in the feeding task due to responsiveness during BP and RW (P < 0.01). Sotalol blocked some BP-related responses, and phenoxybenzamine and sotalol blocked the CT-related responses. The data suggest that dopaminergic and noradrenergic inputs in the LHA are crucial in task initiation and reward processing, respectively. Integration oof these catecholaminergic and other inputs in the LHA might be important in accomplishing motivated feeding.

Dorso-ventral variation in the attenuating effect of lateral hypothalamic stimulation on the switch-off response elicited from the mesencephalic central gray area

Previous experiments have shown that the lateral hypothalamus (LH) is a heterogeneous structure with respect to self-stimulation and aversion. Specifically it has been reported that stimulation of the dorsal LH region entails consequences which are both more rewarding and more aversive than those due to ventral LH stimulation [5, 7, 8, 16, 18]. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of electrical stimulation applied to either the dorsal or the ventral regions of the LH on the switch-off response elicited by activation of the dorsal part of the mesencephalic central gray area (CG). This experiment was performed using BALB/c mice. The results obtained show that whatever the LH site, hypothalamic stimulation reduces the aversive effects of CG stimulation; however, ventral LH activation was more effective than the dorsal one. In addition, a close relationship was observed between the tolerance in regard to LH stimulation alone, and the tolerance in regard to combined CG/LH stimulation. These data suggest that the more marked aversive consequences of dorsal LH stimulation represent a limiting factor for the attenuating effect on CG escape responding.

Long-term lateral hypothalamic single unit analysis and feeding behavior in freely moving rats

Lateral hypothalamus activity was observed in 23 single units for more than 24 h each in freely moving rats. The activity of 3 neurons was circadian related: low in the day and high at night. Ten neurons responded with inhibition related to individual feeding acts. These two neuron types might be important for long-term feeding rhythm and short-term feeding behavior.

Monkey cortical neuron discharge variations in high fixed ratio schedules for food

Neural connections between lateral hypothalamus (LHA) and orbitofrontal cortex (OBF), between amygdala (AMG) and OBF, and between LHA and motor cortex (MC) were established by electrical stimulation and mass potential recording in monkey (Macaca mulatta). Neural unit activity variation in OBF, and MC was recorded during high fixed ratio (FR) bar press schedules for food. Activity variation patterns were correlated with LHA activity patterns seen in earlier experiments, with LHA-OBF, AMG-OBF, and LHA-MC connections, and with changes in FR schedules. OBF map of responses correlated with activity associated patterns and with OBF-LHA and OBF-AMG connections. The MC hand area map of responses showed regular pattern of organization and correlated both activity response patterns and MC-LHA connections. Results confirmed and extended previous similar experiments. These results have further clarified the functional correlations through which the various neural centers communicate to control feeding behavior.

Microelectrophoresis of cholinergic and aminergic drugs on paraventricular neurons

ARTICLESMicroelectrophoresis of cholinergic and aminergic drugs on paraventricular neuronsRL Moss, I Urban, and BA CrossRL Moss, I Urban, and BA CrossPublished Online:01 Aug 1972https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1972.223.2.310MoreSectionsPDF (2 MB)Download PDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesGet permissionsTrack citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInWeChat Previous Back to Top Next Download PDF FiguresReferencesRelatedInformation Cited ByThe interplay between glutamatergic circuits and oxytocin neurons in the hypothalamus and its relevance to neurodevelopmental disorders16 November 2021 | Journal of Neuroendocrinology, Vol. 33, No. 12Oxytocin Signaling Pathway: From Cell Biology to Clinical ImplicationsEndocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders - Drug Targets, Vol. 21, No. 1Electrophysiological and Molecular Properties of the Oxytocin- and Vasopressin-Secreting Systems in MammalsEffects of Salt Loading on the Regulation of Rat Hypothalamic Magnocellular Neurosecretory Cells by Ionotropic GABA and Glycine Receptors25 April 2016 | Journal of Neuroendocrinology, Vol. 28, No. 4Functional role of hypothalamic D1 and D2 receptors in organization of some forms of behavior of the common frog Rana temporaria5 August 2011 | Journal of Evolutionary Biochemistry and Physiology, Vol. 47, No. 3Medial cholinoceptive vocalization strip in the cat and rat brains: initiation of defensive vocalizationsRoles of forebrain GABA receptors in controlling vasopressin secretion and related phenomena under basal and hyperosmotic circumstances in conscious ratsBrain Research Bulletin, Vol. 77, No. 1Nicotinic cholinergic activation of magnocellular neurons of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleusNeuroscience, Vol. 110, No. 2Electrophysiological and Molecular Properties of the Oxytocin- and Vasopressin-Secreting Systems in MammalsEffect of Paroxetine on Plasma Vasopressin and Water Load Testing in Elderly Individuals29 June 2016 | Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, Vol. 13, No. 4Oxytocin, motherhood and bonding4 April 2005 | Experimental Physiology, Vol. 85, No. s1ASSOCIATION OF THE ANTIDIABETIC EFFECTS OF BROMOCRIPTINE WITH A SHIFT IN THE DAILY RHYTHM OF MONOAMINE METABOLISM WITHIN THE SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEI OF THE SYRIAN HAMSTER7 July 2009 | Chronobiology International, Vol. 17, No. 2Hypothalamic A14 and A15 catecholamine cells provide the dopaminergic innervation to the supraoptic nucleus in rat: a combined retrograde tracer and immunohistochemical studyNeuroscience, Vol. 93, No. 2Suprachiasmatic nuclei monoamine metabolism of glucose tolerant versus intolerant hamstersNeuroReport, Vol. 10, No. 10Leptin depolarizes rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus neuronsJeff E. 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Topographic analysis of the effects of microinjections of muscimolPhysiology & Behavior, Vol. 23, No. 6Adrenoceptors on central neurones: Microelectrophoretic studiesNeuropharmacology, Vol. 18, No. 11Effects of suckling on serum prolactin levels and catecholamine concentrations and turnover in discrete brain regionsBrain Research, Vol. 176, No. 1The inhibitory role of β-noradrenergic receptors in oxytocin release during sucklingBrain Research, Vol. 169, No. 3Neurophysiology of Hypothalamic Peptidergic NeuronsHypothalamic Neurons in Cell CultureEffects of acetylcholine, sodium glutamate and GABA on the discharge of supraoptic neurons in the ratBrain Research, Vol. 154, No. 1Changes in ingestive behavior following interruption of a noradrenergic projection to the paraventricular nucleus: Histochemical and neurochemical analysesPharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, Vol. 9, No. 1EFFECTS OF CHOUNOCEPTOR ANTAGONISTS ON THE SUCKLING-INDUCED AND EXPERIMENTALLY EVOKED RELEASE OF OXYTOCIN19 July 2012 | British Journal of Pharmacology, Vol. 63, No. 3Changes in catecholamine content in discrete brain nuclei during the estrous cycle of the ratBrain Research, Vol. 147, No. 2The role of central adrenergic receptors in the reflex release of oxytocinBrain Research, Vol. 142, No. 1Paraventricular nucleus: A primary site mediating adrenergic stimulation of feeding and drinkingPharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, Vol. 8, No. 2Pharmacology of hypothalamic neuronesBrain, Breast, and Gonads: A Passage in NeuroendocrinologyChemosensitivity of hypophysiotropic neurons to the microelectrophoresis of biogenic aminesBrain Research, Vol. 139, No. 1Neuroendocrine Control of LactationCellular Biology of the Neurosecretory Neuron1 January 2011NEUROTRANSMITTER REGULATION OF CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING FACTOR IN VITROAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 297, No. 1 ACTH and RelaDopamine and histamine sensitivity of rostral hypothalamic neurones in the cat: Possible involvement in thermuregulationBrain Research, Vol. 127, No. 1Physiological Roles of Peptides in the Nervous SystemElectrophysiology of the Neurosecretory CellQuantitative evaluation and determination of the biological potency of iontophoretically applied luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LRH)Neuropharmacology, Vol. 15, No. 6Effects of some putative neurotransmitters on unit activity of tuberal hypothalamic neurons in vitroBrain Research, Vol. 108, No. 2The effect of trauma on the formaldehyde-induced fluorescence of noradrenaline in the hypothalamus and brain stem of the ratBrain Research, Vol. 97, No. 1Adrenergic effects on hypothalamic activity: Alpha and beta agonists and antagonists5 November 2013 | Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, Vol. 5, No. 6Tuberoinfundibular neurons: Dopaminergic and norepinephrinergic sensitivityBrain Research, Vol. 89, No. 2Electrical Recording of Brain Activity: The EEG and its Value in Assessing Drug EffectsAbsence of muscarinic modulation of vasopressin release from the isolated rat neurohypophysisNaunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology, Vol. 287, No. 4Microelectrophoretic study of unit responses of the rabbit amygdaloid nucleus to acetylcholine and noradrenalineNeurophysiology, Vol. 6, No. 4Endocrine NeuronsChemical sensitivity of preoptic neurones which project to the medial basal hypothalamusBrain Research, Vol. 71, No. 1Amino acid transmitters in the mammalian central nervous system23 June 2010The Neurosecretory ImpulseReferencesThe Electrophysiology of the Hypothalamus and its Endocrinological ImplicationsOrthodromic and antidromic activation of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in the rabbitExperimental Neurology, Vol. 41, No. 2 More from this issue > Volume 223Issue 2August 1972Pages 310-318 Copyright & PermissionsCopyright © 1972 by American Physiological Societyhttps://doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1972.223.2.310PubMed4558378History Published online 1 August 1972 Published in print 1 August 1972 Metrics