Attack Latency Research Articles

Abstract P216: Distal Convoluted Tubule-Specific Deletion of Specific Deletion of (Pro)Renin Receptor in Mice Increases Energy Expenditure and Enhances Aggressiveness

Our previous study suggested a potential role of (pro)renin receptor (PRR) in the regulation of Na + -Cl - cotransporter (NCC) activity in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT). Here, we employed Slc12a3 -CreERT2 to generate inducible DCT-specific deletion of PRR in mice (KO). As expected, the KO mice exhibited a 1.8-fold increase in renal NCC activity as reflected by HCTZ-induced natriuresis. Surprisingly, the KO mice developed metabolic and behavioral phenotypes. By calorimetry, 4-month-old male KO mice exhibited an enhanced energy expenditure as compared with floxed controls (oxygen consumption: 4172.5 ± 118.0 ml/kg/hr vs. 3303.5 ± 69.8 ml/kg/hr; CO 2 consumption: 3617.3 ± 87.8 ml/kg/hr vs. 2784.2 ± 58.5 ml/kg/hr; heat production: 20.4 ± 0.6 Kcal/kg/h vs. 16.2 ± 0.8 Kcal/kg/h, n = 5-9, p < 0.01), accompanied by enhanced locomotor activity (by 41.3%) and reduced body weight (30.2 ± 0.5 g vs. 28.0 ± 0.3 g, n = 5-9, p < 0.05). The changes in locomotor activity were confirmed by using radiotelemetry. Additionally, resident-intruder aggression test demonstrated that under basal condition, the KO mice exhibited a higher aggression rate as compared with floxed controls (80% in KO group vs . 30% in floxed group, n = 10). The KO mice also exhibited shorter clinch attack latencies, higher number of attacks and attack duration (attack latencies: 79.0 ± 17.6 s in KO group vs . 172.5 ± 5.3 s in floxed group; attack frequency: 3.4 ± 0.8 in KO group vs . 0.7 ± 0.4 in floxed group; attack duration: 10.1 ± 2.0 s in KO group vs . 1.1 ± 0.6 s in floxed group, n = 10, p < 0.01). Furthermore, the KO mice exhibited elevated plasma level of Klotho (321.4 ± 16.3 pg/ml in KO group vs. 254.1 ± 9.8 pg/ml in floxed group, n = 11-12, p < 0.01) that is known to promote energy expenditure in addition to its cardiorenal protective actions. In cultured renal HK2 cells, recombinant soluble PRR (sPRR-His) downregulated Klotho mRNA and protein expression by 29.8% and 37.9%, respectively. Overall, the present study uncovered a novel role of DCT PRR in the regulation of energy metabolism and behavior, part of which may be mediated by antagonism of Klotho action.

Experience with Aposematic Defense Triggers Attack Bias in a Mantid Predator (Stagmomantis carolina)

Synopsis Studies of predator psychology in aposematism have suggested important effects of signal detection through space and time on outcomes of attack behavior. Both the integration of aposematic signals from prey and experience state of the predator can have important effects on attack decisions. The universality of these effects however, especially as it applies to non-avian predators such as arthropods, remains poorly understood. We examined the effects of multimodal aposematic signaling and prior experience with aposematism on attack latency and attack likelihood of the Carolina mantis (Stagmomantis carolina). Using artificial prey bearing visual and olfactory signals of the convergent lady beetle (Hippodamia convergens), we tested 2 cohorts of mantids (representing juvenile and adult stages) across 4 groups: visual only, odor only, combined signals, and control. We then used approaches in linear modeling to test the hypotheses that (1) prior experience with aposematism alters attack behavior toward aposematic prey and (2) multimodal signals have synergistic effects on attack behavior relative to either unisensory signal presented alone. We found support for the first hypothesis in that mantids employ attack biases against visual and olfactory aposematic signals, but only after prior exposure to aposematism and only as juveniles. While support is lacking for multimodal integration by the mantids, this study is the first to suggest a response of mantids to an aposematic olfactory signal (in addition to visual signal) and may suggest a developmental window for mantid predators to develop biases toward aposematic prey that are shaped by experience.

Resveratrol attenuates early life stress induced depression in rats: Behavioural and neurochemical evidence

PurposeMaternal deprivation (MD), a severe naturalistic type of stress in the early postnatal days, is a well-established model of early life stress (ELS) that models juvenile adversity and may result in significant depressive disease in adults. In order to analyze the behavioural, brain monoamine level and HPA axis dysregulations caused by ELS and to determine whether Resveratrol (Res) could counteract these effects, Wistar rat pups were subjected to the MD paradigm, which simulated the consequences of depression. MethodsThe pups on their postnatal day 1–10 were divided in 5 groups (n = 8); nondeprived (ND), maternally deprived (DC), standard fluoxetine (FLX) (5 mg/kg i.p), Res (20, 40 mg/kg i.p). Excluding the ND group, other pups were separated from dam for 3hr/day from day 1 to 10th day. Treatment was initiated from 50th day and was given for 12 days. The behaviour parameters light/dark test, sucrose preference, and resident intruder test were employed. Serum cortisol levels, brain antioxidant activity, monoamine levels and neuronal morphology in the hippocampus were assessed. ResultsThe MD rats showed altered behaviour, including more light–dark transitions, less desire for sucrose, and lower attack latencies. MD influenced the release of serum cortisol and interfered with monoamine, antioxidant levels as well as reduced Nissl bodies in the hippocampus. Treatment with Res led to improved behavioural functions also restored monoamine levels, reduced cortisol release, oxidative stress and prevented histopathological alterations in the rat hippocampus. ConclusionRes showed neuroprotective effects by improving the brain antioxidants and monoamine levels and HPA axis dysregulation and thus improves MD induced depression like behaviour in Wistar rats.

Real-Time Link Verification in Software-Defined Networks

Software-defined networking (SDN) has been widely adopted in different networks, such as datacenter and service providers. The SDN controller has the entire network view and is responsible for managing it. To obtain such a view of the network, the controller employs link discovery protocols, which are vulnerable to attacks such as link fabrication attacks (LFAs). TopoGuard and TopoGuard+ are two major systems detecting LFAs. This paper introduces a link latency attack (LLA) that can bypass the defence mechanism of both systems. LLA can poison the view of the SDN controller from the network topology and causes outages, resulting in poor quality of service (QoS) or quality of experience (QoE). To mitigate this, we develop two machine learning-based defence systems, namely machine learning-based link guard (MLLG) and real-time link verification (RLV), to preserve the required defence for LLA. The MLLG works when the network topology rarely updates, while RLV can support frequent updates. Furthermore, RLV trains itself over a link latency dataset (LLD)– including latency data of fabricated and normal links– that is captured from the ongoing packets in the network. It also implements outlier detection techniques to identify a dynamic threshold for link latency. We test both systems on different scenarios using Mininet and show that they achieve reasonable results compared with current defence algorithms. Specifically, RLV presents the highest detection performance (F1-score) to 70% at less than 0.2% false-positive rate. The system also supports the robustness features when the attack rates vary from 3% to 7% in our simulated network.

Breviscapine Ameliorates Fear Extinction and Anxiety in BALB/cJ Mice.

In this research, the influence of breviscapine on anxiety, fear elimination, and aggression and the potential mechanism was investigated. Anxiety and locomotion were analyzed by elevated plus maze and open field test in mice. Bussey-Saksida Mouse Touch Screen Chambers were used to perform fear conditioning. Territorial aggression was assessed by resident intruder test. Protein levels were evaluated by Western blot. Breviscapine improved fear-extinction learning in BALB/cJ mice. Breviscapine at 20-100 mg/kg increased center cross number, total distance traveled, and velocity in a dose-dependent manner. On the other hand, breviscapine at 20-100 mg/kg decreased the immobility time in open field test. In addition, breviscapine at 20-100 mg/kg increased the ratio of time on the open arm, time on the distal parts of the open arm, and total distance traveled in elevated plus maze. Breviscapine at 100 mg/kg increased the average attack latency and decreased the number of attacks over the last 3 days of resident intruder test. In hippocampus, protein levels of postsynaptic density protein-95 and synaptophysin were elevated by breviscapine at these three doses. The administration of breviscapine alleviates fear extinction, anxiety, and aggression, while increases locomotor in a dose-dependent manner, which might be associated with its influence on synaptic function.

Impact of exploration behavior, aptitude for pellet consumption, and the predation practice on the performance in consecutive live prey foraging tests in a piscivorous species

Within the predator–prey relationship, predator behavior is less studied. Even in natural populations, it shows great diversity, and the factors influencing this are even less known. Among these factors, the personality type of the individual, (including exploration, and neophilia) and the practice significantly influence the success of adapting to a changing environment and switching to new prey types. In the present study, we investigated the first five consecutive foraging trials on live fish prey in naïve pikeperch individuals, which previously consumed or refused pelleted food. We hypothesized that individuals which were willing to consume alternative (pelleted) food would also show higher foraging success on living prey and that the practice would influence the learning process. Our results show that the timing of prey detection is influenced by exploratory behavior, the latency of the first attack by the aptitude for consuming pellets, and both traits by the individual's practice. However, neither of the factor affects the latency and success rate of capturing the prey, suggesting that predation is an independent behavioral trait.

Population differences in the aggregation and collective foraging behavior of fragmented social spider colonies

AbstractLong‐term interactions among individuals are a hallmark of animal societies, but groups rarely remain entirely stable over time. Individuals die or emigrate, or groups become spatially fragmented. Group fragmentation can alter the phenotypic composition of subgroups by separating well‐connected individuals or altering sex ratios, which may alter the execution of collective behaviors. Over 10 days, we measured the aggregation behavior and collective prey capture of experimentally fragmented social spider (Stegodyphus dumicola) colonies collected from different populations in South Africa and Namibia. Colonies were fragmented for 4 weeks, after which subgroups were allowed to aggregate into a single group over time in a shared novel environment. Namibian colonies aggregated more rapidly than South African colonies. Across both populations, colonies containing individuals with higher average boldness values (faster recovery time after an antagonistic stimulus) attacked prey stimuli with more participants. However, bolder colonies from South Africa attacked prey stimuli faster, whereas attack latency in Namibian colonies was unaffected by colony boldness. These data suggest that fragmentation events, which are a common phenomenon in this species and other animal societies, can influence how individuals interact to accomplish collective tasks. Further, collective behavior and group fusion after fragmentation events can differ among groups from different populations.

Learning behavior of Neoseiulus californicus from astigmatid to spider mites

Oulenziella bakeri is often used as an alternative prey for the mass rearing of Neoseiulus californicus in China. Long-term alternative prey feeding experience may cause a decline in the predatory capacity of phytoseiid mites toward their target prey. Learning behavior of predatory mites can help them adapt to the changes from preying on thrips to preying on spider mites (Rahmani et al., 2010), but there are few studies on the learning behavior of predatory mites from astigmatid mites to spider mites. Here, we compared the attack latency, prey preference, and functional response of N. californicus toward Tetranychus urticae among the “natural prey strains” (feeding only on T. urticae), “alternative prey strains” (feeding only on O. bakeri), and “learning behavior treatment” (alternative prey strains experienced in attacking but not feeding on T. urticae). The results showed that the attack latency of “alternative prey strain” of N. californicus on T. urticae was significantly longer than that of “natural prey strain” and “learning behavior treatment”. The “alternative prey strain” showed no obvious predatory preference between the protonymphs of T. urticae and O. baker. There were no significant differences in the capture rate and handling time among the three treatments. Our results indicated that the long-term rearing on alternative prey mainly prolonged the attack latency of N. californicus to the target prey and changed its prey preference, while learning behavior could help alternative prey strain of N. californicus to shorten the attack latency and restore its prey preference toward target prey (Zhu et al., 2022).

Learning behavior of Neoseiulus californicus (Acari: Phytoseiidae) can help in adapting from feeding on alternative prey to target prey

Neoseiulus californicus (Acari: Phytoseiidae) is a commercialized predatory mite that is used as a biological control agent against Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae). Long-term feeding on alternative prey could impact the predatory capacity of N. californicus. Although most studies on the learning behavior of predatory mites have indicated that learning behavior could help them adapt from feeding on thrips (alternative prey) to spider mites (target prey), the role of learning behavior in adapting from feeding on astigmatid mites to spider mites has not been studied thus far. Therefore, this study explored the learning behavior of N. californicus in adapting from feeding on alternative prey (Oulenziella bakeri [Acari: Winterschmidtiidae]) to target mites (T. urticae). The attack latencies, prey preferences, and functional responses of female N. californicus were compared between two strains, N. californicus fed on T. urticae (TU) or O. bakeri (OB), and a learning behavior (LB) treatment. The results showed that the attack latency of OB strain was significantly longer than those of TU strain and LB treatment; OB strain did not show obvious prey preference between protonymphs of T. urticae and O. bakeri; and the functional response among TU, OB, and LB-treated strains were not significantly different. Our results demonstrated that long-term feeding on alternative prey had little effect on the predatory ability of N. californicus. To a certain extent, learning behavior can help N. californicus shift from feeding on alternative prey to target prey. Therefore, in the long run, it is reasonable to rear N. californicus on O. bakeri.

Territory aggression and energy budget in food-restricted striped hamsters

Food resource availability is one of the most important factors affecting interindividual competition in a variety of animal species. However, the energy budget and territory aggression strategy of small mammals during periods of food restriction remain uncertain. In this study, metabolic rate, body temperature, territory aggression behavior, and fat deposit were measured in male striped hamster (Cricetulus barabensis) restricted by 20% of ad libitum food intake with or without supplementary methimazole. Serum thyroid hormone (tri-iodothyronine, T3 and thyroxine, T4), and cytochrome c oxidase (COX) activity in liver, brown adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle, were also measured. Attack latency, total attack times and duration, and the interval duration between attacks of resident hamsters were not significantly changed during food restriction, which was not significantly affected by supplementary methimazole. Metabolic rate and body temperature was significantly increased in food-restricted hamsters following introduction of an intruder, which was not completely blocked by supplementary methimazole. Serum T3 and T4 levels and BAT COX activity were not significantly changed following aggression, and were significantly decreased by supplementary methimazole. These findings suggest that striped hamsters increase energy expenditure for territory aggression during food restriction, and consequently lead to excessive energy depletion. Territory aggression behavior may decrease the capacity to cope with food shortage, which may be independent of thyroid hormone.

Establishment of the Mouse Model of Social Avoidance Induced by Female-Directed Female Aggression

Background Most preclinical research on the effects of stress has been done on male subjects, even though women are more prone than men to experience stress-related problems. Chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) is a rodent model of psychosocial stress. However, this model has been challenged in female mouse studies since neither male nor female resident mice attack intruder females. A female-to-female CSDS model is needed to investigate the physiological and behavioral aspects. Methods The intruders were either male or female C57BL/6J mice, whereas the residents were male or ovariectomized (OVX) female CD-1 mice. The CD-1 aggressor mice had direct physical contact with the C57BL/6J mice for 10 min before initiating sensory contact with them for 24 h. Jump escape and freezing were evaluated during the social defeat of days 1 and 12. Experimental C57BL/6J mice underwent a social interaction test after suffering social defeat for 12 days. Results We found that the number of attack bites and attack latency had a significant negative correlation during the selection of aggressors. In the single-housed OVX mice, 34% of mice met the criterion of the selection of aggressors. However, single-housed OVX mice did not show sustained aggressive behavior (eg, attack bites) through the 12-day CSDS. As a result, we did not find susceptible mice during the social interaction test. In contrast, during the selection of aggressors, 42% of OVX mice housed with partners satisfied the criterion and displayed consistently aggressive behavior. CSDS produced susceptible (50%) and resilient (50%) phenotypes during the social interaction test. Notably, male and OVX female CD-1 mice housed with partners had similar amounts of attack bites and attack rates over the 12-day CSDS. Finally, we found that chronically socially defeated male and female mice displayed different coping behaviors (eg, active vs passive) with social defeat. Conclusions Our study demonstrates that OVX CD-1 mice housed with mates exhibited territorial aggression toward female intruders, producing susceptibility and resilience to social avoidance. Additionally, socially defeated male and female mice displayed different behavioral susceptibility to social defeat.

A Quantitative Method for Measuring Health of Authoritative Name Servers

The Domain Name System - DNS is regarded as one of the critical infrastructure component of the global Internet because a large-scale DNS outage would effectively take a typical user offline. Therefore, the Internet community should ensure that critical components of the DNS ecosystem - that is, root name servers, top-level domain registrars and registries, authoritative name servers, and recursive resolvers - function smoothly. To this end, the community should monitor them periodically and provide public alerts about abnormal behavior. The authors propose a novel quantitative approach for evaluating the health of authoritative name servers – a critical, core, and a large component of the DNS ecosystem. The performance is typically measured in terms of response time, reliability, and throughput for most of the Internet components. This research work proposes a novel list of parameters specifically for determining the health of authoritative name servers: DNS attack permeability, latency comparison, and DNSSEC validation.

Electrolytic lesions of the bilateral ventrolateral orbital cortex not only directly reduce depression-like behavior but also decreased desperate behavior induced by chronic unpredicted mild stress in rats

BackgroundPrevious studies have revealed that ventrolateral orbital cortex (VLO) may play an important role in the regulation of emotional behavior. However, it is not known what effect VLO damage will have on emotion regulation.ResultsData showed that damage of VLO increased the anxiety-like behavior in open field test and elevated plus maze, and decreased the depressive behavior in forced swimming test and learned helplessness test. Besides, the impulsive aggressive behaviors were also increased while the attack latency decreased after VLO lesion. What’s more, damage of VLO decreased depressive behaviors induced by chronic unpredicted mild stress in rats.ConclusionsThese results suggest that the integrity of VLO plays an important role in emotional regulation, and the damage of VLO may inhibit the development of depression-like behavior.

Blocking olfactory input alters aggression in male and female California mice (Peromyscus californicus).

Olfactory input into the brain can be disrupted by a variety of environmental factors, including exposure to pathogens or environmental contaminants. Olfactory cues are often eliminated in laboratory rats and mice through highly invasive procedures like olfactory bulbectomy, which may also disrupt accessory olfactory pathways and detection of non-volatile odors. In the present study, we tested whether inducing anosmia through intranasal infusion of zinc gluconate alters aggression in a monogamous, biparental rodent species, the California mouse (Peromyscus californicus). This less invasive method of manipulating olfaction selectively targets the olfactory epithelium and reduces the detection of volatile odors. Treatment with zinc gluconate extended the time required for male and female California mice to find hidden pieces of apple and reduced the amount of time spent investigating bedding that was soiled by unfamiliar males. Moreover, inhibition of olfaction with zinc gluconate reduced aggressiveness in both sexes as demonstrated by an increased attack latency in the resident-intruder test among same-sex dyads from the same treatment group. These results suggest that volatile olfactory cues are necessary for agonistic responses in both male and female California mice. Therefore, even in species with complex social systems that include territorial aggression and monogamy, volatile olfactory cues modulate agonistic behavior.

Variation in predator response to short-wavelength warning coloration

Warning coloration deters predators from attacking unpalatable prey, and is often characterized by long-wavelength colors, such as orange and red. However, warning colors in nature are more diverse and include short-wavelength colors, like blue. Blue has evolved as a primary defense in some animals but is not common. One hypothesis for the maintenance of this diversity is interspecific variation in predator responses to signals. We tested this hypothesis with galliform birds: Gambel’s quail (Callipepla gambelii) and two domestic chicken breeds (Gallus gallus domesticus; Plymouth Rocks, Cochin Bantams). We measured innate avoidance and learning responses to only blue prey, only orange prey, and orange-and-blue prey, where the blue was iridescent to represent the natural coloration of the pipevine swallowtail butterfly (Battus philenor). We predicted birds would have similar responses to orange, but vary in response to blue. Upon first encounter, Cochin Bantams did not attack blue and Gambel’s quail readily attacked, indicating innate avoidance by Cochin Bantams. Plymouth Rocks had no innate aversion to any color, lower attack latencies and attacked most prey items. Cochin Bantams and Gambel’s quail both learned orange and orange-and-blue quicker than blue. Our results support the hypothesis that interspecific variation in predator response could maintain warning color diversity.

МЕЖСАМЦОВЫЕ ВЗАИМОДЕЙСТВИЯ НА НЕЙТРАЛЬНОЙ ТЕРРИТОРИИ И ПОСЛЕДУЮЩАЯ ДИНАМИКА УРОВНЯ КОРТИКОСТЕРОНА И ТЕСТОСТЕРОНА В КРОВИ У РУЧНЫХ И АГРЕССИВНЫХ СЕРЫХ КРЫС ( RATTUS NORVEGICUS )

Stress responses studied earlier in Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) selected for the absence or enhancement of the aggressive–fearful attitude to humans (tame and aggressive behavior, respectively) were targeted mainly at nonsocial factors, whereas the data on the consequences of social stress induced, in particular, by interactions with a conspecific are scarce. It has already been shown that the selection of Norway rats for tame and aggressive behavior towards humans causes an attenuation or enhancement of intraspecific intermale aggression. In order to find out whether the differences in aggressiveness are accompanied by hormonal changes, variations of the blood levels of corticosterone and testosterone after the test for intermale aggression have been studied in tame, aggressive, and unselected rats reproduced in a vivarium for 7–8 generations as a reference. The goal of this work is to investigate the effect of selection for attitude to humans on agonistic interactions in an unfamiliar cage or in neutral territory and on the subsequent variation of blood corticosterone and testosterone levels in tame, aggressive, and unselected rats. In our experiments, tame males show longer attack latency than aggressive or unselected ones, and the duration of their aggressive behavior and the number of its patterns are much less, close to zero. In the test in neutral territory, aggressive rats are inferior to unselected in the overall time of confrontations. More pronounces signs of aggressiveness in unselected males in comparison to aggressive or tame are noted against the background of elevated basal corticosterone levels and elevated stress responsiveness. The lower aggressiveness of tame rats in the test in neutral territory correlates with the lower testosterone level after the test as compared to unselected or aggressive animals.

Basal forebrain GABAergic neurons promote arousal and predatory hunting

Predatory hunting is an important approach for animals to obtain valuable nutrition and energy, which critically depends on heightened arousal. Yet the neural substrates underlying predatory hunting remain largely undefined. Here, we report that basal forebrain (BF) GABAergic neurons play an important role in regulating predatory hunting. Our results showed that BF GABAergic neurons were activated during the prey (cricket)-hunting and food feeding in mice. Optogenetic activation of BF GABAergic neurons evoked immediate predatory-like actions to both artificial and natural preys, significantly reducing the attack latency while increasing the attack probability and the number of killed natural prey (crickets). Similar to the effect of activating the soma of BF GABAergic neurons, photoactivation of their terminals in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) also strongly promotes predatory hunting. Moreover, photoactivation of GABAergic BF - VTA pathway significantly increases the intake of various food in mice. By synchronous recording of electroencephalogram and electromyogram, we showed that photoactivation of GABAergic BF - VTA pathway induces instant arousal and maintains long-term wakefulness. In summary, our results clearly demonstrated that the GABAergic BF is a key neural substrate for predatory hunting, and promotes this behavior through GABAergic BF - VTA pathway.

Bidirectional effects of Topiramate on anterior cingulate cortex region related aggressive behavior

Topiramate, an antiepileptic drug, has been found to be useful for the treatment of aggression in clinical populations as well as in animal models of aggression. However, increases in aggression were also observed under lower doses of Topiramate. Subsequently, Topiramate produced an inverted U-shaped dose response curve, with increases in aggression at low doses, whereas higher doses engendered anti-aggressive effects. In our previous study, we demonstrated that Topiramate modulates brain activity in the prefrontal areas involved in the modulation of the subcortical circuit mediating aggression, and we found indirect evidence that the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) could be a key site where Topiramate may exert its dose-response effects on aggression. In this study, we performed site-directed injections of Topiramate (0.1 and 0.3 mM) into the ACC on offensive behaviors in isolation-inducedaggression paradigm. By using the resident-intruder test, we demonstrated that Topiramate microinfusion into the ACC at low doses produced increases in aggression, as evidenced by shorter attack latencies (p < 0.01) and increased attack duration (p < 0.01), without affecting the social behavior. In contrast, higher doses engendered anti-aggressive effects, by increasing the attack latencies (p < 0.001), decreasing attack number (p < 0.001) and decreasing attack duration (p < 0.001), as well as an increase in the social behavior. Our findings supported that Topiramate at higher concentrations appeared more efficient to decrease aggression in treated mice. Therefore, we suggest that the ACC is a key brain region in which Topiramate may exert its dose-response effects on aggressive and antisocial behaviors observed in populations with psychotic disorders.

System Redundancy Enhancement of Secondary Frequency Control Under Latency Attacks

Latency Attacks become emerging new types of cyber attacks with widely applied wireless wide-area network and Internet of Things (IoTs) technologies. The power system can suffer from several even tens of seconds of malicious time delay instead of normal latency of mere several milliseconds. Consequently, this exorbitant time delay or latency attack will significantly influence the system dynamics and stability. In this paper, from the perspective of parameter tuning, we study how to enhance the system redundancy of a secondary frequency control system with a high-order complex power system model under latency attacks. The tuning aims to achieve the maximal stability region under latency attacks and is performed with the aid of exhaustive and heuristic search methods. By testing the tuning method using a more practical and detailed power system model, it shows that the stability of the tuned system is greatly enhanced under latency attacks.

Pain‐induced aggression and changes in social behavior in mice

The effects of neuropathic, formalin, and acetic acid-induced visceral pain were investigated on the social and aggressive behaviors in the Swiss male mice. Neuropathic pain was induced by tibial nerve transection (TNT). Also, somatic and visceral pain was conducted by intraplantar injection of diluted formalin (1%, 20 μl) and intraperitoneal administration of acetic acid (0.6%, 200 μl), respectively. Fourteen and twenty one days after the TNT surgery, and also, 1 and 7 days following formalin and acetic acid administration, the three-chambered test was used to determine sociability and preference for social novelty and resident/intruder test was used for the evaluation of the aggressive behaviors. In the sociability phase of the three-chambered test, all the three models of pain did not change the animal's sociability. However, in the social novelty preference phase, the animals in pain showed deficits in social novelty preference by a significant increase in the time spent with the familiar mice compared to the control groups. Also, animals in pain significantly showed more aggressive behaviors like biting and clinching and have much less attack latency in comparison to the control groups. Pain-induced changes in the social novelty preference and aggressive behaviors continued in the neuropathic group until the end of the experiment. However, 7 days following the induction of both formalin and visceral pain, animals' social memory, and aggression almost returned to the standard value. These results suggest that long-lasting pain could lead to social memory impairment and increase aggressive behaviors in mice.