Late Victorians Research Articles

An Authentic Example of Ottoman-Era Wooden Summerhouses; Cemil Topuzlu Kiosk

The beginning of the 18th century is known as the “Westernization Period” in Ottoman architecture. It was in this period that Western-born architectural movements found their way into the Ottoman Empire. This was also a time in which new types of structures emerged in Ottoman architecture as the Western influence continued to permeate both religious and civil architecture. This impact also affected the Ottoman culture of housing, leading to important changes in residential structures. The new cultural elements arriving from the West began to be apparent in the plans, facades, interiors, and decorative components of the homes of the affluent, most of which were built by Western architects. This was a time in which lifestyles were changing, and especially in the capital of Istanbul, a rich assortment of residential architecture was expressed in styles that included the Neo-Baroque, Neo-Gothic, Orientalism, Art Nouveau, Eclecticism, Swiss Châlet, and Late Victorian. One of the new types of structures that appeared in this period was the summerhouse. While these houses belonged to the wealthy Ottoman elite and reflected the traditional Ottoman residential fabric in their plans and styles, a large number carried the architectural characteristics of the summerhouses and mansions of the West. The aim of this article is to describe an authentic example of the group of wooden summerhouses that were outstanding products of Ottoman residential architecture in the 19th century, at a time when the Empire’s cultural norms were turning toward the West. The characteristics of the plans of these buildings, the configuration of their facades and decorative elements will be presented, as will other information on the wooden summerhouses of the period.

Waterloo Sunrise: London from the Sixties to Thatcher, by John Davis

The London of the 1950s was a city the late Victorians would have recognised. By the 1970s, John Davis writes in his idiosyncratic and wide-ranging history of post-war London, the city’s driving economic, social and cultural forces had shifted in ways that would have confounded a Victorian observer. Davis examines this process of urban transformation in sixteen chapters that cover, among other things, the life and death of ‘the Sixties’, changing patterns in home ownership, the rise of the conservation movement, and the Notting Hill riots. Ultimately, he argues, these changes laid the groundwork for a political environment in which the ideology of Thatcherism could take root. In lieu of an introduction, Chapter One examines how the capital’s increasingly visible youth culture and a trend-hungry media converged to create ‘Swinging London’, a public relations exercise that nonetheless captured the city’s post-war optimism. So why did the party end? Davis highlights the obvious factors, notably deindustrialisation and the erosion of manufacturing jobs, paired with economic headwinds after the Wilson government’s deflationary measures in 1966–7. But the book also identifies a growing, if inchoate, resistance to the paternalism of the Beveridge welfare state. Chapters Six and Seven detail the backlash against urban modernism, as expressed in protests against motorway construction and a renewed impulse to conserve the Victorian cityscape. Chapters Nine, Ten, and Twelve chart the emergence of new, oppositional identities among groups as varied as East End cab drivers, suburban home-owners, and Black British youth. Chapters Eight, Thirteen, and Fourteen sketch the reorientation of municipal politics, from the demise of the consensus around the East End’s subsidised post-war prosperity to the emergence of grass-roots voluntary action groups that sought to redefine the imperatives of the welfare state, to the breakdown of local Labour Party hierarchies in the 1960s and 1970s.

“An End to Our Iron and Coal”: Resource Anxiety in Late Victorian Science Fiction

As global social and environmental conditions deteriorate, growing ranks of scientists, environmentalists, and writers have pointed toward population growth and resource scarcity as primary conditions of ecological catastrophe. Studying the “Future War” subgenre of Late Victorian science fiction, I search for the origins of this contemporary concern with so-called “overpopulation” and resource scarcity. By examining George Chesney’s The Battle of Dorking (1871) and H.G. Wells’s The War of the Worlds (1889), this paper explores how late Victorian anxieties about the relative decline of the British Empire, constellated around scarcity, continue to frame contemporary understandings of social and environmental crisis today.

Vagrancy in the Victorian Age: Representing the Wandering Poor in Nineteenth-Century Literature and Culture

Vagrancy in the Victorian Age: Representing the Wandering Poor in Nineteenth-Century Literature and Culture

Church’s Authority and The Disappearence of God In George Bernard Shaw’s The Miraculous Revenge Short Story

This research tries to investigate and elaborate the intention of Shaw in writing such a hypocrite story which one side praise God, church and bible, but another side mostly portrayed the disappearance of God. Late Victorian is considered as the period which the presence of God is a must in every single activity that the Victorian done because of their purpose to back to the nature by considering God as the Holy creation through praising church. However, Shaw shows a big contradiction between the reality on the Victorian era with the elaboration of the short story by questioning the presence of God even though it looks like the story is about praising the church. This research is analyzed using qualitative descriptive method with historical approach and historicism theory. The result of this study indicates that church has the authority which is legitimate by the society even though the society itself has a doubt on the presence of God and even disappearing God in their life in society. Therefore, the power or the authority which is had by the church is not absolute and can be replaced by other beliefs because the reality which is faced by the society cannot always be understood by the church.

Church’s Authority and The Disappearence of God In George Bernard Shaw’s The Miraculous Revenge Short Story

This research tries to investigate and elaborate the intention of Shaw in writing such a hypocrite story which one side praise God, church and bible, but another side mostly portrayed the disappearance of God. Late Victorian is considered as the period which the presence of God is a must in every single activity that the Victorian done because of their purpose to back to the nature by considering God as the Holy creation through praising church. However, Shaw shows a big contradiction between the reality on the Victorian era with the elaboration of the short story by questioning the presence of God even though it looks like the story is about praising the church. This research is analyzed using qualitative descriptive method with historical approach and historicism theory. The result of this study indicates that church has the authority which is legitimate by the society even though the society itself has a doubt on the presence of God and even disappearing God in their life in society. Therefore, the power or the authority which is had by the church is not absolute and can be replaced by other beliefs because the reality which is faced by the society cannot always be understood by the church.

READING DOYLE’S „THE HOUND OF THE BASKERVILLES“ THROUGH THE PRISM OF THE GOTHIC GENRE

The exploitation of Gothic elements in detective fiction was long regarded as a skillful way to create an atmosphere of suspense and mystery. However, writers have often relied on the power of the Gothic not only to intrigue and unsettle the reader, but also, more importantly, to direct attention to complex taboo topics of their time. This essen- tial function of the Gothic can be identified in Arthur Conan Doyle’s detective novel The Hound of the Baskervilles, which alludes to many delicate issues of the fin-de-siècle British society, including violence, mental illness, and criminality. These phenomena were often exam- ined by late Victorians in the light of degeneration theory, which held that abnormal forms of behavior were signs of bad heredity and bio- logical regression. Thus, this paper investigates whether degeneration theory played a role in Doyle’s characterization of the novel’s criminal antagonist Jack Stapleton by focusing on how his appearance, behavior, and actions are represented in the text. It is argued that Doyle delib- erately uses the Gothic motif of duality to disperse the illusion of a clear boundary between the civilized “self” and the barbaric “other,” thereby implicitly stressing the complexity of human nature. Accordingly, the analysis, which rests on Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, reveals that Stapleton’s moral decay should not be read as an indicator of his hereditary predisposition toward crime but rather as a result of mental tensions that he fails to control.

Issue Notes

The following papers were presented to the Canadian Society of Church History, but were not made available for publication: Eleanor Stebner, “Apologizing for Past Wrongs: A Step Towards Global Citizenship?”; Marguerite Van Die, “‘What God hath joined . . .’: Religious Perspectives on Marriage and Divorce in Late Victorian Canada”; Darren Dochuk, “Hillybilly Preachers, Plain Folk, and ‘Ham and Eggs’: California’s Tumultuous Turn from Depression-era Populism to Post-war Conservatism”; Gary Miedema,“‘A Christian Country’: Religious Broadcasting and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1938-1960”; Sachiyo Takashima, “Women Who Made a Great Bridge Between North America and Japan: Gwen Norman and Haru Matsukata Reischauer, and their Efforts to Create Mutual Understanding”; and Gordon Heath, “‘Forming Sound Public Opinion’: Late Victorian Canadian Protestant Press and Nation-Building.” The conference also included a joint session with the Canadian Theological Society on “A Pilgrimage in Progress: A History of the United Church of Canada.”

Revolutionary Greece in Victorian popular literature

Revolutionary Greece in Victorian popular literature

Behind The Times: Virginia Woolf in Late-Victorian Contexts by Mary Jean Corbett

Reviewed by: Behind The Times: Virginia Woolf in Late-Victorian Contexts by Mary Jean Corbett Jane de Gay BEHIND THE TIMES: VIRGINIA WOOLF IN LATE-VICTORIAN CONTEXTS, by Mary Jean Corbett. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2020. 312 pp. $48.95 hardback; $23.99 ebook. Virginia Woolf's relationship with the Victorians has long attracted interest, as critics have questioned her claims that "on or about December 1910, human character changed" to show that she had a complex, ambivalent attitude towards an era she never fully laid to rest.1 In Behind the Times: Virginia Woolf in Late-Victorian Contexts, Mary Jean Corbett makes a nuanced contribution to the discussion by showing that Woolf's relationship with the Victorians was not a matter of periodicity but one of generation, attitude, and temperament. Corbett shows that late Victorians and modernists coexisted in the same time and occupied the same spaces: Woolf was born and brought up in the late-Victorian era, an era of progress and radical thinking that saw the New Woman, increasing frankness around sexuality, and an acceleration in the suffrage movement. Yet Woolf denied the existence of this radical previous generation, instead taking mid-Victorians like Charlotte Brontë and George Eliot both as foils and points of reference in order to present the Victorians as passé and highlight the innovations of her own generation. Building on the work of Alison Booth, who showed that Woolf deliberately underplayed past women writers, and Marion Dell's analysis of Woolf's ambivalence towards her mother and aunts, this book fleshes out the picture of the generation that Woolf ignored.2 Concentrating on Woolf's nonfiction, including diaries, memoirs, essays, and journalism, but also with discussions of The Voyage Out (1915), Night and Day (1919), and The Years (1937), Corbett explores Woolf's reaction to women writers and activists who remained active into the modernist era but whom she pushed into the past. These include the novelist Anne Thackeray Ritchie (1837-1919), who was her aunt; prolific novelists Lucy [End Page 406] Lane Clifford (1846-1929) and Mary Augusta (Mrs. Humphry) Ward (1851-1920); and the feminist New Woman writer Sarah Grand (1854–1943), who outlived Woolf by two years. Corbett also sets these women within their interconnecting circles, so the book encompasses a wide range of writers, including Alice Meynell, Vernon Lee, Clementina Black, and Elizabeth Robins. This elegantly structured book has five substantive chapters bridged by short interludes highlighting particular concepts. The introduction critiques the distinction that Woolf attempted to draw between the antiquated world of her upbringing in South Kensington and the experimental world of Bloomsbury, showing that Woolf lived alongside radicals in the former and that in moving to Bloomsbury, she and her siblings were not blazing a trail but entering a space where earlier generations had experimented in art and life. Ritchie, the author of Old Kensington (1873), was one such figure, so chapter one, "Gender, Greatness, and the 'Third Generation,'" explores Woolf's complex relationship with this popular writer whom she wanted to relegate to the past. In a reading of Night and Day, Corbett shows how Woolf's rejection of Ritchie by representing her as the comical Mrs. Hilbery goes alongside a turning-away from late nineteenth-century women writers who had "grappled with the representation and the regulation of sexuality" (p. 63). An interlude on Grand highlights the politics of the New Woman to lead into a chapter on Woolf's engagement with debates on social purity in The Voyage Out. Corbett sets this novel, with its story of sexual ignorance and experience and its guarded references to prostitution, in relation to the work of Grand and her precursor Josephine Butler. This discussion fills an important gap in Woolf's work, though it would have been useful to provide some touchstones with more familiar material, for example by exploring how this relates to Woolf's discussion of shame and its connection with her Puritan heritage in her memoir essay "A Sketch of the Past" (1939). Woolf's moral qualms do come to the fore, however, in chapter three, "'Ashamed of the Inkpot': Woolf and the Literary Marketplace," where Corbett explores Woolf's discomfort with the...

THE HISTORY OF SCOTTISH THEOLOGY: VOLUME 2, THE EARLY ENLIGHTENMENT TO THE LATE VICTORIAN ERA. Edited by DavidFergusson and Mark W.Elliott. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. Pp. xvi + 446. Cloth, $125.00.

Religious Studies ReviewVolume 46, Issue 4 p. 552-553 Short Reviews of Recent Publications: History of Christianity: Modern/Global THE HISTORY OF SCOTTISH THEOLOGY: VOLUME 2, THE EARLY ENLIGHTENMENT TO THE LATE VICTORIAN ERA. Edited by David Fergusson and Mark W. Elliott. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. Pp. xvi + 446. Cloth, $125.00. First published: 09 January 2021 https://doi.org/10.1111/rsr.14966Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume46, Issue4December 2020Pages 552-553 RelatedInformation

Reconceiving Nature: Ecofeminism in Late Victorian Women's Poetry by Patricia Murphy

Reviewed by: Reconceiving Nature: Ecofeminism in Late Victorian Women's Poetry by Patricia Murphy Marion Shaw RECONCEIVING NATURE: ECOFEMINISM IN LATE VICTORIAN WOMEN'S POETRY, by Patricia Murphy. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2019. 262 pp. $50.00 cloth, $50.00 ebook. Patricia Murphy's objectives in Reconceiving Nature: Ecofeminism in Late Victorian Women's Poetry are threefold: to direct attention to poets who have been relatively neglected; to increase interest in ecological concerns in Victorian literature; and to stimulate interest in women's nature poetry, particularly from the later part of the nineteenth century (pp. 33-34). The author covers her ground in a highly referenced monograph with detailed analysis of selected poems. Murphy's general introduction, "Nascent Ecofeminism," some thirty pages long, rehearses the dominant ideas of the Victorian period toward nature, in particular the "implicit equation of nature and women" (p. 5). From Copernicus onward, the earth has been viewed as female, fecund, and nourishing, seeded by the male agent of the sun. Victorians like Carlyle and even Darwin continued this thinking, and it lead inexorably to domination, with the earth lacking agency, as did women. Murphy's argument is that her chosen poets—Augusta Webster, Mathilde Blind, Michael Field, Alice Meynell, Constance Naden, and L. S. Bevington—challenged this orthodoxy. Throughout her study, Murphy follows the pattern of providing an introduction to the poet, then a highly selective choice of poems as evidence. She begins in Chapter One, "Augusta Webster: Interrogating the Nature Woman Link," with Webster, whose campaign for higher education for girls and women was underpinned by a denial of essentialism. Webster held that nature was a construct as much as womanhood, and there was no inextricable link between them. A close, vigorous if somewhat overwritten reading of Webster's compelling poem "The Swallows" (1881) illustrates Webster's challenge to the fusion of nature and women. The following chapter, "Matilde Blind: Contesting Domination," gives an analysis of Blind's The Ascent of Man (1889), a long narrative poem charting the failure of Western civilization under male domination, which affirms the need for a rebirth (surely a touch of essentialism here?) to redeem the natural world. An admirer of Percy Shelley, Blind is perhaps the most extreme and revolutionary thinker of this group of women poets. Chapter Three, "Michael Field: Eroticizing Agency," focuses on the two women, Katherine Bradley and Edith Cooper, who wrote together under the male pseudonym, Michael Field. Their contribution to the debate is to eroticize nature, seeing it not merely as narrowly sexual but as sensual, passionate, spontaneous, and delightful. Finding models in the writings of Homer, Virgil, and Ovid, Michael Field in "The Sleeping Venus" (1892) sees the female body and the contours of the earth joined by "no impermeable boundary": [End Page 167] There is sympathy between Her and Earth of largest reach, For the sex that forms them each Is a bond, a holiness, That unconsciously must bless And unite them, as they lie. (p. 101) The poem celebrates autoeroticism and also, it seems to me, lesbian eroticism. In its insistence on mutual female presence and desire, it too is surely essentialist. In Chapter Four, "Alice Meynell: Unsettling the Nature/Culture Dichotomy," Murphy argues that Meynell refuses to assign gender to the link between nature and humanity. An admirer of Tennyson, Meynell designates him "our wild poet . . . Wild flowers are his—great poet—wild winds, wild lights, wild heart, wild eyes!" (p. 143). Meynell belongs to a tradition of writers like Richard Jefferies and Gilbert White, who had an artist's "sympathy [for and] an eye for landscape" (p. 142). Murphy notes that in Meynell's poems, for example her powerful "The Visiting Sea," (1913) there is no gender assignment to the speaker who tells of an invasion that is not a male-female rape but a visitation from the seaward spaces, None knows, not even you, the places Brimmed at your coming, out of sight, —The little solitudes of delightThis tide constrains in dim embraces. (pp. 133-34) In Meynell's poems nature is not passive but is an active and equal partner with humans, different from William Wordsworth's works, in which nature is used...

Thomas Hardy and the Value of Brains

This article reads Thomas Hardy'sThe Woodlanders(1887) andJude the Obscure(1895) as ambivalent responses to the new conception of human intelligence that emerged from Victorian psychology and evolutionary theory and which formed the basis of what I describe as the Victorian biopolitics of intelligence. Although these novels reflect Hardy's endorsement of the new biological model of intelligence, they also register his resistance to what many late Victorians assumed to be its corollary: that mental worth can be an object of scientific measurement, classification, and ranking. I suggest that the work of the philosopher Jacques Rancière illuminates the extent to which these novels challenge the scientific reification of intellectual inequality and attempt to vindicate overlooked and stigmatized forms of intelligence.

The Meeting of the Waters

The Meeting of the Waters

A Late Victorian Family Life: The Typically Untypical World of The Collingwoods of Lanehead

Abstract This paper examines the Collingwood family of Lanehead, Coniston, in the UK’s Lake District. It shows that the family itself was a unity which allowed for the emergence of brilliance on the part of at least one of its members, R. G. Collingwood. It argues that his emergence was the outcome both of his education and of the family habits inculcated into him by his parents and shared with his siblings from an early age and operative throughout their lives. In particular, this included the sharing of detailed and minutely descriptive family letters written as, and designed to be read as, shared narratives. It makes the claim that the family was in many ways a bohemian family, but in its own particular way-its bohemianism being offset by a sturdy work ethic and middle-class sensibility.

The Regenerators: Social Criticism in Late Victorian Canada by Ramsay Cook

<i>The Regenerators: Social Criticism in Late Victorian Canada</i> by Ramsay Cook

‘A Tempest in the Teapot’: London Churchgoing in 1913 — The Census That Never Was

Late Victorian and Edwardian London had a reputation for relatively low levels of religious practice, as evidenced in the census of church attendance conducted in the capital by the Daily News in 1902–03. In 1912–13 its successor, the Daily News and Leader, attempted to replicate this census but was forced to abandon it at an early stage in the face of concerted opposition from both Anglicans and Nonconformists. In its place was substituted a survey of the religious and social work of the metropolitan churches, which was published in 1914. The story of ‘the census that never was’ is here pieced together for the first time, and the reasons for its significance explained, within the context of the broader scholarly debate about whether Edwardian Britain was a ‘faith society’.

Mitchell’s Newspaper Press Directory and the Late Victorian and Early Twentieth-Century Press

This article focuses on Mitchell’s Newspaper Press Directory at a time when the newspaper press was undergoing a period of adjustment from the world of the Victorian press to the print culture of the mid-twentieth century. It reflects on the ways in which the Directory represented that change between 1900 and 1939. It stresses the value of seeing the Directory as an agent shaping the way the press was imagined and defined, and it asserts the importance of studying directories in their own right as texts articulating the interplay between readers, the state, and a diverse periodical industry.

Streetlife in Late Victorian London: The Constable and the Crowd

The study of Victorian cities helped foster the emergence of social history after 1945. From Asa Briggs to Tristram Hunt, historians demonstrated how cities became sources of antagonism but also machines in which commerce could thrive, the disorderly forces of dirt and disease could be overcome, and modern understandings of class society could emerge.1 Urban history also provided ample opportunity for dialogue with sociologists and others about the new ways of living that cities created and their networks of power and sociability. There was no shortage of sources but it was common to ransack investigators like Henry Mayhew and novelists who could recreate the maelstrom of nineteenth-century city life. There was, however, another figure who observed the Victorian city and indeed was paid to do it: the humble police constable. His notebooks and other police records make possible a different kind of urban history from below. This is the starting point for Peter K. Andersson's important book about street life in the later nineteenth century. Whilst his book can profitably be read by historians of crime, Andersson rightly spots that police records give us an effective point of entry into exploring quotidian behaviour. The book becomes a study of the ‘etiquette of street life’ (p. 204). Andersson deliberately focuses on the mundane and the ordinary, the patterns of behaviour evident as Victorians went about their daily business. The obvious objection to this source material would be that police records deal mainly with flashpoints and moments of conflict, which can skew the way we think about ordinary life. Andersson, however, argues convincingly that such records offer clues about social codes and notions of what was acceptable in human interactions. In the Victorian city, people could not always walk where they liked or behave as they pleased. They had to negotiate a series of social expectations.

Going into Dreamland: From Lewis Carroll’s &lt;em&gt;Alice in Wonderland&lt;/em&gt; to Patrick White’s &lt;em&gt;The Aunt’s Story&lt;/em&gt;

My chief purpose in this essay is to discuss influences that helped shape patrick White's thought as he wrote the most individual of his novels, The Aunt's Story (1948). also seek to place The Aunt's Story in historical context in its theme of the exploration of the psyche through the analysis of dreaming. that important theme was propelled into late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century literature by Lewis Carroll's two stories, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) and Through the Looking-Glass (1871). Carroll's stories were a powerful inf luence upon White's novel, but the connection has escaped notice in the years that have elapsed since the publication of The Aunt's Story: the two authors are simply not thought of together. Because of their wide popularity, Carroll's Alice in Wonderland (i use the shortened, common form of the title) and Through the Looking-Glass have usually been considered imaginative, playful children's stories, whereas The Aunt's Story is a deeply serious adult novel throughout. some modern psychological analyses have found disturbing undercurrents within Carroll's stories, but they are often prone to impose modern attitudes upon the Victorians. in his thoroughly researched study of Lewis Carroll, Will Brooker maintains, as would, i do not believe Lewis Carroll was a 'paedophile' in the modern sense, and [. . .] feel his behaviour and attitudes toward young girls should be judged within his own context rather than ours (preface x). there are strong links between Carroll and White in both theme and technique. White, like almost everyone else of his time, certainly knew Alice in Wonderland well. to david Marr, he recalled being dressed up as the Mad Hatter when he was five years old (880).There are two other important influences besides Carroll's on The Aunt's Story that have also not been recognized. they are olive schreiner's The Story of an African Farm (1883) and Henry Miller's Black Spring (1936), both of which White quotes from as epigraphs to the three parts of The Aunt's Story. two of the three epigraphs come from schreiner's The Story of an African Farm, often considered one of the great english-language novels, and the other comes from Miller's Black Spring. Miller's novels aroused much attention in the 1930s for their sexual frankness, but what impressed White about Black Spring was its dreamlike, surrealistic writing. He would probably have obtained a copy of the book when on vacation in France during his residence in england in the 1930s.1 By linking himself with the south African olive schreiner and the American Henry Miller, White was endorsing and promoting the notion of an english-language literature in which other countries were equally important. He was becoming increasingly ambitious as he began the series of his greatest works, from The Aunt's Story through The Tree of Man and Voss to Riders in the Chariot. My book Patrick White within the Western Literary Tradition (2010) stresses the fact that White always saw himself as associated with a broader literature than that of Australia.The theme that runs through The Aunt's Story of a woman troubled since childhood seeking refuge in a dreamland takes its origin in Alice in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass, but White's treatment of the subject is much more comprehensive than Carroll's. the subject became of increasing interest to the late Victorians and underwent considerable development, contributing to the emergence of Freud and, later, Jung, both of whom contributed to it in return.Carroll's works do not show Alice within her family to suggest where her problems start, but the non-tranquil quality of her dreams suggests insecurities. the assumption of the author is that Alice's problems are caused exclusively by the make-up of her Victorian society. Carroll deals only with Alice's childhood, leaving her at a point in both stories where she appears to have a reasonable ability to handle life's difficulties. …