Late Pleistocene Hominin Research Articles

Multi-isotope reconstruction of Late Pleistocene large-herbivore biogeography and mobility patterns in Central Europe

Interpretations of Late Pleistocene hominin adaptative capacities by archaeologists have focused heavily on their exploitation of certain prey and documented contemporary behaviours for these species. However, we cannot assume that animal prey-taxa ecology and ethology were the same in the past as in the present, or were constant over archaeological timescales. Sequential isotope analysis of herbivore teeth has emerged as a particularly powerful method of directly reconstructing diet, ecology and mobility patterns on sub-annual scales. Here, we apply 87Sr/86Sr isotope analysis, in combination with δ18O and δ13C isotope analysis, to sequentially sampled tooth enamel of prevalent herbivore species that populated Europe during the Last Glacial Period, including Rangifer tarandus, Equus sp. and Mammuthus primigenius. Our samples come from two open-air archaeological sites in Central Germany, Königsaue and Breitenbach, associated with Middle Palaeolithic and early Upper Palaeolithic cultures, respectively. We identify potential inter- and intra-species differences in range size and movement through time, contextualised through insights into diet and the wider environment. However, homogeneous bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr across large parts of the study region prevented the identification of specific migration routes. Finally, we discuss the possible influence of large-herbivore behaviour on hominin hunting decisions at the two sites.

A Late Pleistocene hominin footprint site on the North African coast of Morocco

Footprints represent a relevant vestige providing direct information on the biology, locomotion, and behaviour of the individuals who left them. However, the spatiotemporal distribution of hominin footprints is heterogeneous, particularly in North Africa, where no footprint sites were known before the Holocene. This region is important in the evolution of hominins. It notably includes the earliest currently known Homo sapiens (Jebel Irhoud) and the oldest and richest African Middle Stone Age hominin sites. In this fragmented ichnological record, we report the discovery of 85 human footprints on a Late Pleistocene now indurated beach surface of about 2800 m2 at Larache (Northwest coast of Morocco). The wide range of sizes of the footprints suggests that several individuals from different age groups made the tracks while moving landward and seaward across a semi-dissipative bar-trough sandy beach foreshore. A geological investigation and an optically stimulated luminescence dating of a rock sample extracted from the tracksite places this hominin footprint surface at 90.3 ± 7.6 ka (MIS 5, Late Pleistocene). The Larache footprints are, therefore, the oldest attributed to Homo sapiens in Northern Africa and the Southern Mediterranean.

Close encounters vs. missed connections? A critical review of the evidence for Late Pleistocene hominin interactions in western Eurasia

Recent advances in the study of ancient DNA recovered from fossils and cave sediments have profoundly changed our views on the biological and cultural interactions between populations and lineages of fossil Homo in the Later Pleistocene of Eurasia. A spatiotemporally complex picture emerges, with multiple population admixture and replacement events. Focusing on the evidence from Western Eurasia, we consider here how the mapping out of between-species interactions based on fossil and material cultural evidence is being replaced by a broader approach. Traditional narratives about human migrations and the biological and/or cultural advantages of our own species over the Neanderthals are now giving way to the study of the biological and cultural dynamics of past human populations and the nature of their interactions in time and space.

Structural properties of the Late Pleistocene Liujiang femoral diaphyses from southern China

The characterization of the femoral diaphysis in Pleistocene hominins with chronoecogeographical diversity plays a crucial role in evaluating evolutionary shifts in locomotor behavior and body shape. However, Pleistocene hominin fossil remains in East Asia are scarce and are widely dispersed temporally and spatially, impeding our comprehension of the nature and polarity of morphological trends. Here, we present qualitative and quantitative analyses of the cross-sectional properties and structural organization of diaphyses in two Late Pleistocene hominin femora (Liujiang PA91 and PA92) from southern China, comparing them to other Eurasian and African Pleistocene hominins. By integrating surface features and internal structure, our findings reveal that the Liujiang femora exhibit modern human-like characteristics, including a developed pilaster, a gluteal buttress, and minimum mediolateral breadth located at the midshaft. The presence of a femoral pilaster may relate to posterior cortical reinforcement and an increased anteroposterior bending rigidity along the mid-proximal to mid-distal portion of the diaphysis. Compared to archaic Homo, Liujiang and other Late Pleistocene modern human femora show a thinner mediolateral cortex and lower bending rigidity than the anteroposterior axis, and a lack of medial buttress, potentially indicating functionally related alterations in a range of pelvic and proximal femoral features throughout the Pleistocene. The femoral robusticity of the Liujiang individual resembles that of other Pleistocene hunter–gatherers from East Asia, implying comparable overall mobility or activity levels. The investigation of Liujiang femoral diaphyseal morphology contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of early modern human postcranial structural morphology in East Asia.

A new assemblage of late Neanderthal remains from Cova Simanya (NE Iberia)

This study presents an exceptional collection of 54 Late Pleistocene human remains that correspond to at least three Neanderthal individuals from Simanya Gran, the main gallery of Cova Simanya, located in the northeastern Iberian Peninsula. The collection comprised 53 unpublished remains that were unearthed during the 1970s and an additional tooth discovered during 2021 excavations. The specimens represent an adult with a small stature, a periadolescent aged approximately 11.5 years, and an immature individual aged approximately 7.7 years, thus offering a more complete demographic perspective. The collection encompasses diverse anatomical parts including upper and lower dentition, mandible, vertebrae, and limb bones from both the upper and lower extremities. Attempts to extract aDNA were unsuccessful. Renewed archaeological investigations at Cova Simanya have facilitated the reevaluation of the original stratigraphic context of these remains, leading to the discovery of the additional tooth, aligning with the periadolescent individual. This assemblage is currently the most extensive Neanderthal collection from the northeastern Mediterranean Iberia, offering invaluable insights into the morphology and evolutionary trajectory of Late Pleistocene hominins. Hence, Simanya Neanderthals will enhance our understanding of Neanderthal demographics and evolution, paving the way for an in-depth examination of the morphological diversity and evolutionary context of Iberian Neanderthals.

Morphological and morphometric analyses of a late Middle Pleistocene hominin mandible from Hualongdong, China

Excavations in Hualongdong (HLD), East China, have yielded abundant hominin fossils dated to 300 ka. There is a nearly complete mandible that fits well with a partial cranium, and together they compose the skull labeled as HLD 6. Thus far, detailed morphological description and comparisons of the mandible have not been conducted. Here we present a comprehensive morphological, metric, and geometric morphometric assessment of this mandible and compare it with both adult and immature specimens of Pleistocene hominins and recent modern humans. Results indicate that the HLD 6 mandible exhibits a mosaic morphological pattern characterized by a robust corpus and relatively gracile symphysis and ramus. The moderately developed mental trigone and a clear anterior mandibular incurvation of the HLD 6 mandible are reminiscent of Late Pleistocene hominin and recent modern human morphology. However, the weak expression of all these features indicates that this mandible does not possess a true chin. Moreover, a suite of archaic features that resemble those of Middle Pleistocene hominins includes pronounced alveolar planum, superior transverse torus, thick corpus, a pronounced endocondyloid crest, and a well-developed medial pterygoid tubercle. The geometric morphometric analysis further confirms the mosaic pattern of the HLD 6 mandible. The combination of both archaic and modern human features identified in the HLD 6 mandible is unexpected, given its late Middle Pleistocene age and differs from approximately contemporaneous Homo members such as Xujiayao, Penghu, and Xiahe. This mosaic pattern has never been recorded in late Middle Pleistocene hominin fossil assemblages in East Asia. The HLD 6 mandible provides further support for the high morphological diversity during late Middle Pleistocene hominin evolution. With these findings, it is possible that modern human morphologies are present as early as 300 ka and earlier than the emergence of modern humans in East Asia.

Glacial/interglacial climate variability in southern Spain during the late Early Pleistocene and climate backdrop for early Homo in Europe

The oldest evidence of a human presence in western Europe is currently documented at the late Early Pleistocene sites of Barranco León and Fuente Nueva 3 (Guadix-Baza Basin, SE Spain), dated respectively to 1.4 and 1.2 Ma. Understanding the climatic variability that these hominins encountered and coped with is of outstanding importance for placing their activities in an ecological context and understanding their capacity to adapt to changing conditions. Glacial-interglacial variability during this period was considerably less intense than during later phases of the Pleistocene. To date, however, no quantitative estimates are available for this climate variability in Early Pleistocene hominin sites, and no ‘cold’ reconstructions directly associated with the early hominin occupations of Europe have been performed either. Here stratigraphically constrained quantitative climatic reconstructions are provided for the sites of Barranco León and Fuente Nueva 3, using an improvement on the Mutual Ecogeographic Range method by projecting the niche envelope of the extant representatives of Ophisaurus sp. We ascertain differences in temperature and rainfall between the different layers of the two sites, in line with previous reconstructions that revealed warm, humid periods (‘interglacial’) as well as more temperate but drier periods (‘glacial’'), consistent with Early Pleistocene climate cyclicity. Our new estimates suggest that late Early Pleistocene hominins, though conditioned to some degree by climatic factors, were able to deal with changing climatic and environmental conditions (‘interglacial’ and ‘glacial’') in the southwestern extremity of the European continent.

Lithic technological strategies of Late Pleistocene hominins in the Daoshui River valley, Hunan province, central South China

The Late Pleistocene is a crucial period of dramatic changes in lithic technologies as well as interactions between modern humans and other archaic human groups. In this paper, we describe the technological analysis of lithic assemblages collected from 28 newly discovered Paleolithic sites along the Daoshui River, a tributary of the Lishui River (itself a tributary of Yangtze River) in northern Hunan Province, central South China. Luminescence dating of several sites in this region has provided a general Late Pleistocene age range for lithic assemblages. Technologically, high quality raw materials are predominantly exploited (e.g., chert and siliceous slate) and direct hard hammer percussion predominates which lacks the classic Levallois technology though conceptually, some specimens do exhibit a certain degree of volumetric control and share other common features with prepared cores, here we tentatively define them as “simply prepared cores.” Small flakes and flake tool production plays a primary role in the overall technological strategy, accompanying a small proportion of large flakes and Large Cutting Tools production. Our examination of lithic technologies in the region clearly contrasts with the traditional view of South China being characterized by a simple cobble tool industry over the course of the Pleistocene period. We further discuss the issue of the Middle Paleolithic in China, as well as the ecological adaptations of hominins in the Daoshui River valley within a Late Pleistocene climatic context.

Defining paleoclimatic routes and opportunities for hominin dispersals across Iran.

Fossil and archaeological evidence indicates that hominin dispersals into Southwest Asia occurred throughout the Pleistocene, including the expansion of Homo sapiens populations out of Africa. While there is evidence for hominin occupations in the Pleistocene in Iran, as evidenced by the presence of Lower to Upper Paleolithic archaeological sites, the extent to which humid periods facilitated population expansions into western Asia has remained unclear. To test the role of humid periods on hominin dispersals here we assess Paleolithic site distributions and paleoenvironmental records across Iran. We developed the first spatially comprehensive, high-resolution paleohydrological model for Iran in order to assess water availability and its influence on hominin dispersals. We highlight environmentally mediated routes which likely played a key role in Late Pleistocene hominin dispersals, including the expansion of H. sapiens and Neanderthals eastwards into Asia. Our combined analyses indicate that, during MIS 5, there were opportunities for hominins to traverse a northern route through the Alborz and Kopet Dagh Mountains and the Dasht-I Kavir desert owing to the presence of activated fresh water sources. We recognize a new southern route along the Zagros Mountains and extending eastwards towards Pakistan and Afghanistan. We find evidence for a potential northern route during MIS 3, which would have permitted hominin movements and species interactions in Southwest Asia. Between humid periods, these interconnections would have waned, isolating populations in the Zagros and Alborz Mountains, where hominins may have continued to have had access to water.

Bulb retouchers half a million years ago: New evidence from late Acheulean Jaljulia, Israel

Bulb retouchers (or flint retouchers) are a specific tool category applied in stone knapping activities, commonly associated with Middle Palaeolithic assemblages and late Pleistocene hominins in north Africa, the Levant and Europe. A few flint flakes with pits on the ventral surface were identified in the lithic assemblage of Area D at late Acheulean Jaljulia, dated to ca. 500 ka. Here we present a techno-typological analysis of these items as well as the percussive marks. Like many Middle Palaeolithic bulb retouchers, those used at Jaljulia consist mainly of retouched items or combined matrices (a tool and/or a core). Here we present the earliest evidence for the use of bulb retouchers during late Acheulean times in the Levant, thus demonstrating their roots in the Lower Palaeolithic lithic repertoire. Further analyses will allow us to more accurately interpret their use as a percussor. This study constitutes the first step in understanding the role and significance of bulb retouchers in early human tool-kits during the late Lower Palaeolithic in the Levant and demonstrates that such items were envisioned and employed hundreds of thousands of years earlier than previously known.

Continuous technological and behavioral development of late Pleistocene hominins in central South China: Multidisciplinary analysis at Sandinggai

Lithic technological development in the Late Pleistocene of South China has received substantial attention in recent years due to a series of recent fossil discoveries in the region, including some assigned to early modern Homo sapiens. Here we present a comprehensive study of the open-air site of Sandinggai, which is located in the middle valley of the Yangtze River in central South China. Luminescence dating based on quartz and feldspar has shown that the initial occupation of the site began from ca. 96.6 ± 5.1 ka and continued until the end of the last deglacial period (i.e., ca. 13.3 ± 0.3 ka). The site thus provides a substantial chronological sequence to investigate the behavioral development of early humans. Technological analysis shows that a Large Cutting Tool (LCT) techno-complex based mainly on coarse-grained quartz sandstone co-existed with a small flake and flake tool production system based on chert, with the latter playing a more prominent role. In addition, this small débitage flaking component lacks skillful prepared core technology, which is often present in the West at contemporaneous sites. Furthermore, from a wider regional context, an evolutionary pattern is suggested which shows that the pre-existing Middle Pleistocene LCT techno-complex underwent a marked decline during the Late Pleistocene, while in contrast, the local small flaking system became prominent and continued to develop through time, without discernible external influence. These data suggest a re-evaluation of current ideas on the movement of early modern humans into the region, along with their potential influence in the different regions of South China.

The contribution of stone tool residues in reconstructing Late Pleistocene hominin stone tool behaviour at Grotta di Fumane, Italy

Understanding the relationship between stone tool technology and Late Pleistocene hominins has been one of the most fundamental questions within the field of human evolution. While this question has traditionally been addressed through the technological and typological study of lithic remains, improvements in detecting and identifying stone tool residues offer new avenues for reconstructing Late Pleistocene stone tool technologies. However, the possible contribution of stone tool residues in the reconstruction of Late Pleistocene stone tool technologies remains unclear due to unsolved methodological issues. The remaining issues include uncertainties concerning the exact role of optical microscopy, the effect of the depositional context on residue preservation and the effect of (post-)excavation treatment. This paper explores the possible contribution of stone tool residues through a large-scale residue analysis of a lithic assemblage from Grotta di Fumane, including stone tools from Middle and Upper Palaeolithic layers. Including different microscopic techniques, lithics from different depositional contexts and treated through different (post-)excavation procedures allowed the verification of the effects of all these variables on the possible contribution of residues for reconstructing Late Pleistocene technologies. The results indicate that all these variables play a role in interpreting stone tool residues and should be considered crucial elements of a residue analysis protocol.

Two Late Pleistocene human femora from Trinil, Indonesia: Implications for body size and behavior in Southeast Asia

Late Pleistocene hominin postcranial specimens from Southeast Asia are relatively rare. Here we describe and place into temporal and geographic context two partial femora from the site of Trinil, Indonesia, which are dated stratigraphically and via Uranium-series direct dating to ca. 37–32 ka. The specimens, designated Trinil 9 and 10, include most of the diaphysis, with Trinil 9 being much better preserved. Microcomputed tomography is used to determine cross-sectional diaphyseal properties, with an emphasis on midshaft anteroposterior to mediolateral bending rigidity (Ix/Iy), which has been shown to relate to both body shape and activity level in modern humans. The body mass of Trinil 9 is estimated from cortical area and reconstructed length using new equations based on a Pleistocene reference sample. Comparisons are carried out with a large sample of Pleistocene and Holocene East Asian, African, and European/West Asian femora. Our results show that Trinil 9 has a high Ix/Iy ratio, most consistent with a relatively narrow-bodied male from a mobile hunting-gathering population. It has an estimated body mass of 55.4 kg and a stature of 156 cm, which are small relative to Late Pleistocene males worldwide, but larger than the penecontemporaneous Deep Skull femur from Niah Cave, Malaysia, which is very likely female. This suggests the presence of small-bodied active hunter-gatherers in Southeast Asia during the later Late Pleistocene. Trinil 9 also contrasts strongly in morphology with earlier partial femora from Trinil dating to the late Early-early Middle Pleistocene (Femora II–V), and to a lesser extent with the well-known complete Femur I, most likely dating to the terminal Middle-early Late Pleistocene. Temporal changes in morphology among femoral specimens from Trinil parallel those observed in Homo throughout the Old World during the Pleistocene and document these differences within a single site.

Merging morphological and genetic evidence to assess hybridization in Western Eurasian late Pleistocene hominins.

Previous scientific consensus saw human evolution as defined by adaptive differences (behavioural and/or biological) and the emergence of Homo sapiens as the ultimate replacement of non-modern groups by a modern, adaptively more competitive group. However, recent research has shown that the process underlying our origins was considerably more complex. While archaeological and fossil evidence suggests that behavioural complexity may not be confined to the modern human lineage, recent palaeogenomic work shows that gene flow between distinct lineages (for example, Neanderthals, Denisovans, early H. sapiens) occurred repeatedly in the late Pleistocene, probably contributing elements to our genetic make-up that might have been crucial to our success as a diverse, adaptable species. Following these advances, the prevailing human origins model has shifted from one of near-complete replacement to a more nuanced view of partial replacement with considerable reticulation. Here we provide a brief introduction to the current genetic evidence for hybridization among hominins, its prevalence in, and effects on, comparative mammal groups, and especially how it manifests in the skull. We then explore the degree to which cranial variation seen in the fossil record of late Pleistocene hominins from Western Eurasia corresponds with our current genetic and comparative data. We are especially interested in understanding the degree to which skeletal data can reflect admixture. Our findings indicate some correspondence between these different lines of evidence, flag individual fossils as possibly admixed, and suggest that different cranial regions may preserve hybridization signals differentially. We urge further studies of the phenotype to expand our ability to detect the ways in which migration, interaction and genetic exchange have shaped the human past, beyond what is currently visible with the lens of ancient DNA.

A Late Pleistocene human genome from Southwest China

Southern East Asia is the dispersal center regarding the prehistoric settlement and migrations of modern humans in Asia-Pacific regions. However, the settlement pattern and population structure of paleolithic humans in this region remain elusive, and ancient DNA can provide direct information. Here, we sequenced the genome of a Late Pleistocene hominin (MZR), dated ∼14.0 thousand years ago from Red Deer Cave located in Southwest China, which was previously reported possessing mosaic features of modern and archaic hominins. MZR is the first Late Pleistocene genome from southern East Asia. Our results indicate that MZR is a modern human who represents an early diversified lineage in East Asia. The mtDNA of MZR belongs to an extinct basal lineage of the M9 haplogroup, reflecting a rich matrilineal diversity in southern East Asia during the Late Pleistocene. Combined with the published data, we detected clear genetic stratification in ancient southern populations of East/Southeast Asia and some degree of south-versus-north divergency during the Late Pleistocene, and MZR was identified as a southern East Asian who exhibits genetic continuity to present day populations. Markedly, MZR is linked deeply to the East Asian ancestry that contributed to First Americans.

Being-with other predators: Cultural negotiations of Neanderthal-carnivore relationships in Late Pleistocene Europe

Late Pleistocene hominins co-evolved with non-analogue assemblages of carnivores and carnivorous omnivores. Although previous work has carefully examined the ecological and adaptive significance of living in such carnivore-saturated environments, surprisingly little attention has been paid to the social and cultural consequences of being-with, and adapting to, other charismatic predators and keystone carnivores. Focusing on Neanderthal populations in Western Eurasia, this paper draws together mounting archaeological evidence that suggests that some Late Pleistocene hominins devised specific behavioral strategies to negotiate their place within the vibrant carnivore guilds of their time. We build on integrative multispecies theory and broader re-conceptualizations of human-nature relations to argue that otherwise puzzling evidence for purported ‘symbolic’ behavior among Neanderthals can compellingly be re-synthesized with their ecology, settlement organization and lifeworld phenomenology. This re-framing of Neanderthal lifeways in the larger context of startling carnivore environments reveals that these hominins likely developed intimate, culturally mediated, and hence varied, bonds with raptor, hyena and bear others, rather than merely competing with them for resources, space and survival. This redressing of human-carnivore relations in the Middle Paleolithic yields important challenges for current narratives on evolving multispecies systems in the Late Pleistocene, complicating our understanding of Late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions and the roles of hominins in these processes.

The relevance of late MSA mandibles on the emergence of modern morphology in Northern Africa

North Africa is a key area for understanding hominin population movements and the expansion of our species. It is home to the earliest currently known Homo sapiens (Jebel Irhoud) and several late Middle Stone Age (MSA) fossils, notably Kébibat, Contrebandiers 1, Dar-es-Soltane II H5 and El Harhoura. Mostly referred to as “Aterian” they fill a gap in the North African fossil record between Jebel Irhoud and Iberomaurusians. We explore morphological continuity in this region by quantifying mandibular shape using 3D (semi)landmark geometric morphometric methods in a comparative framework of late Early and Middle Pleistocene hominins (n = 15), Neanderthals (n = 27) and H. sapiens (n = 145). We discovered a set of mixed features among late MSA fossils that is in line with an accretion of modern traits through time and an ongoing masticatory gracilization process. In Northern Africa, Aterians display similarities to Iberomaurusians and recent humans in the area as well as to the Tighenif and Thomas Quarry hominins, suggesting a greater time depth for regional continuity than previously assumed. The evidence we lay out for a long-term succession of hominins and humans emphasizes North Africa’s role as source area of the earliest H. sapiens.

The effect of formation processes on the frequency of palaeolithic cave sites in semiarid zones: Insights from Kazakhstan

AbstractCentral Asian caves with Palaeolithic deposits are few, but they provide a rich record of human fossils and cultural assemblages that has been used to model Late Pleistocene hominin dispersals. However, previous research has not yet systematically evaluated the formation processes that influence the frequency of Palaeolithic cave sites in the region. To address this deficiency, we combined field survey and micromorphological analyses in the piedmont zone of south Kazakhstan. Here, we present our preliminary results focusing on selected sites of the Qaratau mountains. Sediment cover varies among the surveyed caves, and loess‐like sediments dominate the cave sequences. The preservation of cave deposits is influenced by reworking of cave sediments within the caves but also by the broader erosional processes that shape semiarid landscapes. Ultimately, deposits of potentially Pleistocene age are scarce. Our study provides new data in the geoarchaeologically neglected region of Central Asia and demonstrates that micromorphology has great analytical potential even within the limitations of rigorous survey projects. We outline some of the processes that influence the formation and preservation of cave deposits in Kazakhstan, as well as broader implications for the distribution of Palaeolithic cave sites in Central Asia and other semiarid environments.

The Middle Stone Age in the Eastern Desert. EDAR 135 — a buried early MIS 5 horizon from Sudan

ABSTRACT Middle Stone Age (MSA) lithic artefacts coming from dated layers preserved in their original stratigraphic position are still rare in Northeast Africa in general and in Sudan in particular. This paper aims to present the results of technological and functional analyses of an assemblage coming from a stratigraphic context, i.e. the upper level of the EDAR (Eastern Desert – Atbara River) 135 site, discovered in an abandoned gold mining pit in the Sudanese Eastern Desert, approximately 70 km east of the town of Atbara. The assemblage, which is based on locally available quartz and rhyolite, comes from a layer bracketed by OSL dates of 116 ± 13 and 125 ± 11 kya. Such dating places it within Marine Isotope Stage 5e–5d. Analysis of the assemblage revealed several characteristics that seem to set it apart from other MSA Northeast African inventories. Among these, the dominance of simple, non-predetermined core reduction strategies and expedient tool types, coupled with the lack of traces of Nubian Levallois technique, are the most conspicuous. Micro-traces of use on animal and plant matter were preserved on some of the tools. EDAR 135 is part of a newly discovered complex of sites that confirms the presence of Middle and Late Pleistocene hominins along one of the possible routes out of Africa towards Eurasia.

Exploring Late Pleistocene hominin dispersals, coexistence and extinction with agent-based multi-factor models

Toward the end of the Pleistocene, archaic humans in Eurasia such as the Neanderthals and Denisovans were completely replaced by anatomically modern humans dispersing from Africa. The causes underlying the replacement and extinction processes remain controversial, especially regarding the relative importance of random events, and anthropogenic and environmental factors. Here, we use the most comprehensive agent-based modeling framework to date for exploring Late Pleistocene human population dynamics under realistic time-evolving environmental conditions. Model simulations suggest multiple out-of-Africa dispersals. Most of these resulted in only partial replacement of Eurasians and long-term coexistence of spatially structured archaic and modern populations in Eurasia. Moreover, a comparison of empirical and model data suggests that the best-documented extinction process – that of the Neanderthals – did not have a single overarching cause, but spatially and temporally diverse causes and mechanisms, such as environmental fluctuations, and asymmetry in resource exploitation efficiency and reproductive rates. When viewed in isolation, various population properties have central importance for replacements, but their true importance can only be understood in comparison and with interactions with other properties.