Late Neolithic Early Bronze Age Research Articles

Stone Age Yersinia pestis genomes shed light on the early evolution, diversity, and ecology of plague

The bacterial pathogen Yersinia pestis gave rise to devastating outbreaks throughout human history, and ancient DNA evidence has shown it afflicted human populations as far back as the Neolithic. Y. pestis genomes recovered from the Eurasian Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age (LNBA) period have uncovered key evolutionary steps that led to its emergence from a Yersinia pseudotuberculosis-like progenitor; however, the number of reconstructed LNBA genomes are too few to explore its diversity during this critical period of development. Here, we present 17 Y. pestis genomes dating to 5,000 to 2,500 y BP from a wide geographic expanse across Eurasia. This increased dataset enabled us to explore correlations between temporal, geographical, and genetic distance. Our results suggest a nonflea-adapted and potentially extinct single lineage that persisted over millennia without significant parallel diversification, accompanied by rapid dispersal across continents throughout this period, a trend not observed in other pathogens for which ancient genomes are available. A stepwise pattern of gene loss provides further clues on its early evolution and potential adaptation. We also discover the presence of the flea-adapted form of Y. pestis in Bronze Age Iberia, previously only identified in in the Caucasus and the Volga regions, suggesting a much wider geographic spread of this form of Y. pestis. Together, these data reveal the dynamic nature of plague’s formative years in terms of its early evolution and ecology.

The Emergence of Coercive Societies in Northwestern Scandinavia During the Late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age

AbstractThis paper discusses how coastal societies in northwestern Scandinavia were able to rise in power by strategically utilizing the natural ecology and landscape in which they were situated. From two case studies (the Norwegian regions of Lista and Tananger), it is shown that it was possible to control the flow of goods up and down the coast at certain bottlenecks but that this also created an unstable society in which conflict between neighboring groups occurred often. More specifically the paper outlines an organizational strategy that may be applicable cross-culturally.

Étude d’un fossé et d’architectures en terre fondés au milieu du 3e millénaire av. J.-C. sur le plateau des Costières (Garons, Gard, France)

The purpose of this paper is the detailed study of one of the excavations that has marked the evolution of Fontbouïsse of MITRA III located in Garons (Gard, France) whilst focussing on the development and the disappearance of enclosures in the south of France. The site located near to a site known as Puech Ferrier, an unpublished enclosure of MITRA III excavated in 2011, was first excavated in 2012 within the framework of preventive archaeology. This exploration of a 5000 m ² surface revealed the southern part and the entrance of an installation delimited by at least two ditches which succeed one another, dating to a period between the 27th and 24th centuries BC that includes the development of the culture of Fontbouïsse, the Campaniforme (Bell Beaker) and the emergence of the early Bronze (BA2). A network of three concentric ditches, the innermost enclosure being the oldest, makes up the first enclosure, where an interruption in the ditches allows access to the site. A later much larger wider and deeper ditch cuts across the first enclosure. The paper focusses on the study of this ditch and its fill, which is the only enclosed site dating to the Late Neolithic in the south of France. Observed over nearly 90 m, this ditch delimits the southern part of the site. It contains fragments of mudbrick over a silty ashy layer the anthracological spectrum of which contains mainly by oak. Based on the results of stratigraphic and soil micromorphology, a phased filling of the ditch can be proposed. Micro-and macroscopic characterization of the earthen elements found in the ditch have specified the nature of the cob and wattle and daub and the demolished structure they came from. The findings reveal that the ditch remained open for a relatively short period of time, after which a cob structure, perhaps a wall, was installed, the base of which is preserved in a portion of the ditch. The ditch was then filled in by the destruction of another earthen and wood structure. This architecture could have been used to strengthen the monumental aspect of the enclosure, the hypothesis being that it copied a layout observed on other Fontbuxien settlements. A violent fire subsequently destroyed this ditch-wall enclosure and a possible adjoining building. Following on from this event, the ditch was re-dug before being filled in after the site is abandoned. The exact dating of the ditch and the destruction of the earthen wall remain imprecise. Some elements found in the lower ditch fill date to the first phase of the Fontbouïsse culture. They stylistically refer productions from the plain of Hérault and Gard. However, the destruction of the earthen architecture is dated by radiocarbon analysis and pottery found in the upper layers and the discovery of a sherd with international style decoration gives a later dating range of between 2450 and 2250 cal. BC. This enclosure and its destruction constitute a milestone in Fontbouïsse and Late Neolithic chronology. Its foundation and destruction occur within a short space of time. The events that occurred during the history of MITRA date the initial foundation and development of the concentric enclosures and the site''s total overhaul, which happened shortly before its abandon. The entrance identified at Mitra III, the new ditch with its earthen architecture that cut across the first enclosure around 2500 cal. BC questions our knowledge of the development and disappearance of enclosures at a pivotal period (Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age) in southern France.

Stature and the Neolithic transition– Skeletal evidence from southern Sweden

Human stature is a variable often used to study health changes in present and past populations. In this study possible differences in stature from the late Mesolithic-Early Bronze Age, based on skeletal data from southern Sweden, are investigated. The sample comprises n=203 femora where maximum lengths were evaluated using non-parametric testing. Sex was assessed primarily using criteria on the pelvis and secondarily through statistical testing of sexual dimorphism. Measurements of the vertical diameter of the femoral head, femoral anterior-posterior and medial-lateral were evaluated using an iterative discriminant analysis. Results confirm a significant difference in femoral length between archaeological culture groups for both sexes. Male femoral lengths evidence a significant increase in the Battle Axe Culture that remained high throughout the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. Only a minor increase in male stature associated with the transition to agriculture could be noticed; stature then remained constant until the Pitted Ware Culture. There was no change in female stature following the Neolithic transition. Female stature then increased gradually throughout the Neolithic, but decreased somewhat in the later part of the Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age. These findings suggest that the transition to agriculture did not affect health in any profound way, and that the high stature in the BAC-Early Bronze Age are dependent on a mix of genetic influx, population increase and good nutrition and health, possibly linked to an intensification and consolidation of the agro-pastoral economy.

Experimental and Use-wear Examinations of Flint Knives: Reconstructing the Butchering Techniques of Prehistoric Lithuania

Eksperimentiniai ir trasologiniai titnaginių peilių tyrimai. Skerdimo technologijų priešistorinėje Lietuvoje rekonstrukcijaTiriant Lietuvos akmens amžiaus medžiagą, gausiai aptinkama titnaginių skelčių su utilizacinėmis žymėmis darbinėse kraštinėse. Dažnai skeltės būna papildomai apdorotos įvairių tipų retušu, kuris byloja apie dirbinio panaudojimą. Neišlikus organinės kilmės medžiagų, suprasti tikrąją dirbinio paskirtį tampa itin nelengva. Tokių titnaginių skelčių, kurios tipologiškai išskirtos kaip peiliai, Lietuvoje randama tyrinėjant vėlyvojo neolito–ankstyvojo bronzos amžiaus paminklus. Jų išskirtiniai technologiniai gamybos ypatumai konstatuoja tam tikrą dirbinio funkciją. Šiame straipsnyje, remiantis Lietuvos vėlyvojo neolito ir ankstyvojo bronzos amžiaus paminkluose rastais titnaginiais peiliais, siekiama atkurti priešistorės gyvūnų skerdimo technologijas. Tikslui įgyvendinti taikyti eksperimentiniai ir trasologiniai tyrimo metodai. Remdamiesi tyrimo rezultatais, pateikiame naujų įžvalgų apie titnaginių peilių naudojimą ir metalo dirbinių efektyvumą apdorojant gyvūnų skerdeną.

Y-chromosomal DNA analyzed for four prehistoric cemeteries from Cis-Baikal, Siberia

The Lake Baikal region of Siberia was home to two temporally distinct populations from Early Neolithic, EN (7500–7000cal BP) to Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age, LN-EBA (5570–3725cal BP). The EN group was separated from the LN-EBA group by a ~1500-year gap (hiatus), and during this hiatus no human remains have been recovered from the Lake Baikal area. Examination of the paternal lineage through Y-chromosomal polymorphisms is a novel approach to BAP and will facilitate the assessment of the paternal continuities and/or discontinuities within and between the EN and the LN-EBA groups, and complement the previously examined maternal data. Several new ancient DNA extraction and PCR amplification techniques were optimized to address the technical challenges during sample analysis. Each sample was extracted twice in duplicate on different occasions to authenticate the results. Thirteen Y-chromosomal Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) markers were examined via the SNaPshot multiplex PCR reaction to determine Y-chromosomal haplogroups of males. Results have been obtained from 16 males from the EN cemeteries Lokomotiv and Shamanka II representing haplogroups K, R1a1 and C3, and 20 males from the LN-EBA Ust'-Ida and Kurma XI cemeteries representing haplogroups Q, K and unidentified SNP (L914). For those males belonging to haplogroup Q, further experiments were obtained to examine sub-haplogroups of Q, and the results showed that those males belong to sub-haplogroup Q1a3. The paternal Y-chromosome results suggest a discontinuity between the EN and LN-EBA populations. The significance of this research lies on the utility of DNA analysis in making inferences about the pre-historic social structure.

Evaluating the biological discontinuity hypothesis of Cis-Baikal Early versus Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age populations using dental non-metric traits

The aim of this study is to assess dental non-metric trait frequencies of Middle Holocene hunter–gatherer populations from the western Lake Baikal region of Siberia, the Russian Federation, for evidence of population discontinuity. Mortuary practices, cranial morphology, and mitochondrial DNA data have led to the hypothesis of a discontinuity event between the Early Neolithic (EN; ∼7500–7025 cal BP) and Late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age (LN–EBA; ∼5500–3700 cal BP) populations. Dental non-metric traits are highly heritable and can be used to infer biological affinity between populations. Mean measure of divergence results find that dental non-metric trait frequencies vary between archaeological periods in statistical terms, but the extent of difference is minor. In the LN–EBA sample, several, but not all, trait frequencies shift towards the range characteristic of populations with Western European genetic admixture. Gene flow from a population to the south of the Baikal region is the most likely explanation for this shift, although the role of genetic drift and the impact of small sample sizes cannot be discounted. Two cemeteries along the Angara River on either side of the discontinuity event have the most similar dental non-metric trait patterns. The similarity of traits between the EN site of Lokomotiv and the LN component of the site of Ust'-Ida I could suggest population continuity or genetic admixture between groups in this area. Dental non-metric trait data are shown to be an informative avenue for assessing past population events, revealing trends not detected by other data types, and directing research into our reconstruction of the history of these groups away from the shores of Lake Baikal to along the Angara River.

Revisiting osteoarthritis in the Cis-Baikal: Understanding behavioral variability and adaptation among middle Holocene foragers

This examination of osteoarthritis (OA) focuses on better understanding behavioral variability among the middle Holocene foragers of the Cis-Baikal, Siberia, particularly as it pertains to a unique period of diachronic cultural change in the region. The three cemetery populations considered lie on either side of an 800–1000 year biocultural ‘hiatus’—characterized by a cessation in the use of formal cemeteries—and are located in two of the Cis-Baikal's four main micro-regions. Two of the cemetery samples, Lokomotiv and Shamanka II, represent the pre-hiatus early Neolithic (EN) Kitoi culture (8000–7000/6800 cal. BP), while the third, Ust'-Ida I, represents the post-hiatus late Neolithic–early Bronze Age (LN–EBA) Isakovo–Serovo–Glazkovo (or ISG) cultural complex (6000/5800–4000 cal. BP). Results reveal a dynamic pattern of variability across both time and space. Of particular interest is an apparent dichotomy between the two pre-hiatus EN sites, namely considerably higher OA severity at Lokomotiv compared to Shamanka II. This disparity suggests fundamental behavioral differences between the populations despite their contemporaneity and cultural continuity, possibly reflecting distinct residential mobility patterns and population densities in their respective micro-regions. In addition, intra-site analyses reveal that activity may have differed considerably between the sexes, whether in type, intensity, and/or duration. Male-dominated logistical foraging on both sides of the hiatus may explain, at least in part, these discrepancies. Finally, results of intra-joint component analyses of the elbow and knee were similar across age, sex, and cemetery groups, and largely consistent with those of epidemiological studies. Taken together, these results add to our growing understanding of pre- and post-hiatus adaptive strategies in the Cis-Baikal by providing a more detailed picture of the complex and highly variable behavioral and activity patterns employed by the region's middle Holocene foragers.

New 14C evidence for the Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age transition in Southeast Europe

The transition from the Late Neolithic (LN) period (locally also called Final Neolithic or Chalcolithic) to the Early Bronze Age (EBA) in Greece and the Southeast Balkans is an obscure period in human history. Previous radiocarbon evidence showed that in settlements with stratigraphical sequences stretching out on both periods, the absolute dates featured a gap ranging from 700 to 1000 years (roughly between 4000 and 3300/3000 cal. BC). On the other hand, there is only scarce evidence about settlements that would have been founded during the missing period, thus arising questions of paramount importance about the human occupational strategies in this period. Investigation tackling this particular problem is carried out within the framework of a broader research project (Balkans-4000) funded by the French National Research Agency (ANR). Here we discuss the latest radiocarbon results from three recently excavated multilayer settlements on the continental Greek Eastern Macedonia: Dikili Tash, Kryoneri and Sidirokastro. In all cases, the existing LN radiocarbon dates do not go beyond about 4000 BC, whereas the earliest EBA layer dates begin at around 3300 BC. A date in the last 1/3rd of the 4th millennium BC is also the date suggested for the one-layer transitional settlement on the neighbouring island of Thasos (Aghios Ioannis). The fact that the gap affects settlements of different types and locations, although there are no signs of major environmental changes, suggests that the reasons of their possible total or partial abandonment are more likely to be social than strictly environmental.

Lower limb activity in the Cis‐Baikal: Entheseal changes among middle holocene siberian foragers

Lower limb entheseal changes are evaluated in order to reconstruct activity levels and more fully understand cultural and behavioral variation among the middle Holocene (ca. 9,000-3,000 years BP) foragers of Siberia's Cis-Baikal region. The four cemetery samples examined span a period of diachronic change characterized by an 800- to 1,000-year discontinuity in the use of formal cemeteries in the region. Two of the cemetery samples represent the early Neolithic Kitoi culture, dating from 8,000 to 7,000/6800 cal. BP; the other two represent the late Neolithic-early Bronze Age Isakovo-Serovo-Glazkovo (ISG) cultural complex, dating from 6,000/5,800 to 4,000 cal. BP. Findings suggest a dynamic pattern of cultural variability in the Cis-Baikal, with spatial distribution (i.e., site location within particular microregions) appearing to be just as important a factor as cultural/temporal affiliation in explaining intersample differences in entheseal morphology. In addition, intrasample comparisons reveal increasing sexual disparity with advancing age at death, emphasizing the influence of sex-related activities on lower limb entheseal changes. Finally, results from the separate fibrous and fibrocartilaginous datasets appear to be largely congruous, implying that activity patterns in the Cis-Baikal may have similar effects on the morphology of both types of entheses.

Houses and Hierarchies: Economic and Social Relations in the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age of Southernmost Scandinavia

Research on Late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age society in southernmost Scandinavia has to a large extent focused on the creation of social hierarchy and on elite networks upheld by individuals. This has meant that the importance of collective strategies has been underplayed. In the south-west corner of Sweden, about eighty house remains from the Late Neolithic and the earliest Bronze Age have been excavated within a small area. It is the largest concentration of houses from the period so far excavated in southern Scandinavia. The settlement pattern reveals both single farms and one site, Almhov, with a concentration of several contemporary farms with large houses. The aim of this article is to highlight collective aspects, recognizing that both collective and individual strategies are important in the formation of hierarchical societies. House remains as well as graves and their placement in relation to each other within the local landscape are the archaeological material in focus, regarded as materializations of economic and social relations. It is argued that collective strategies were an important part of creating and maintaining economic and social position.

Hunter–gatherer foraging ranges, migrations, and travel in the middle Holocene Baikal region of Siberia: Insights from carbon and nitrogen stable isotope signatures

Foraging ranges, migrations, and travel among Middle Holocene hunter–gatherers in the Baikal region of Siberia are examined based on carbon and nitrogen stable isotope signatures obtained from 350 human and 203 faunal bone samples. The human materials represent Early Neolithic (8000–6800 cal BP), Late Neolithic (6000–5000 cal BP), and Early Bronze Age periods (∼5000–4000 cal BP) and come from the following four smaller areas of the broader region: the Angara and upper Lena valleys, Little Sea of Baikal’s northwest coast, and southwest Baikal. Forager diets from each area occupy their own distinct position within the stable isotope spectrum. This suggests that foraging ranges were not as large as expected given the distances involved and the lack of geographic obstacles between the micro-regions. All examined individuals followed a similar subsistence strategy: harvesting game and local fishes, and on Lake Baikal also the seal, and to a more limited extent, plant foods. Although well established in their home areas, exchange networks with the other micro-regions appear asymmetrical both in time and direction: more travel and contacts between some micro-regions and less between others. The Angara valley seems to be the only area with the possibility of a temporal change in the foraging strategy from more fishing during the Early Neolithic to more ungulate hunting during the Late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age. However, the shift in stable isotope values suggesting this change can be viewed also as evidence of climate change affecting primary productivity of the Baikal–Angara freshwater system.

Middle Holocene hunter-gatherers of Cis-Baikal, Siberia: An overview for the new century

The paper examines Middle Holocene hunter-gatherer adaptive strategies in the Baikal region of Siberia based on diverse data (radiocarbon, mortuary, geochemical, genetic, human osteological, and zooarchaeological) accumulated over the last 10–15 years. The new model emphasizes the cyclical nature of the long-term changes and recognizes similarities between the Early Neolithic and Late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age cultures. The overall impression seems to be that change in the region was rapid rather than gradual. A number of interesting correlations between various cultural and environmental variables have been identified. During the Early Neolithic and Late Neolithic–Bronze Age, the spatial distributions of mortuary sites, open landscape, and good fisheries are all correlated and both intervals are coeval with periods of environmental stability. For the Early Neolithic two additional sets of correlated variables have been identified: (1) the uneven distribution of fish resources, uneven distribution of the human population, and cultural heterogeneity; and (2) poorer overall community health, more extensive male travel and heavier workloads, and higher reliance on fishing. For the Late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age, the sets of correlated variables are somewhat different: (1) more even distribution of terrestrial game resources (herbivores), more even distribution of the human population, and cultural homogeneity; and (2) better overall community health, less travel and lighter workloads, more equitable distribution of labor between males and females, and higher reliance on game hunting. Viewed together, these patterns emphasize the much more dynamic pattern of hunter-gatherer cultural variability, temporally and spatially, compared to what was known before.

The Neolithic-Early Bronze Age Mortuary Rockshelter of Bolores, Torres Vedras, Portugal

The Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age mortuary rockshelter of Bolores (Torres Vedras, Lisbon) is a collective burial located in the archaeologically rich landscape of the Portuguese Estremadura. Excavations were conducted in 2007 and 2008 as part of the Sizandro-Alcabrichel Research Project (SARP), a collaboration between the German Archaeological Institute-Madrid and The University of Iowa which seeks to investigate the dynamics of social evolution and paleoecology of human populations between the Neolithic and Bronze Age in the Sizandro and Alcabrichel River valleys. To generate a high-resolution history of Bolores and document the variability of human biographies throughout the site’s use, we applied interdisciplinary methods, including GIS, AMS dating of multiple individuals, micromorphology, bioarchaeology, bone refitting, biodistance studies, and stable isotope analyses. Four AMS dates bracket activity at the site between 2800 and 1800 cal B.C., which is coeval with the settlement of Zambujal, located 2km to the SE, and other burials in caves, rockshelters, and tholoi in the region. Bolores is somewhat unusual for this time period and region because it housed a relatively high percentage of subadults (over 50%) and associated artifacts are rare. This report contextualizes Bolores within the variability of Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age burial practices in the Portuguese Estremadura.