Late Neanderthals Research Articles

Long genetic and social isolation in Neanderthals before their extinction

Neanderthal genomes have been recovered from sites across Eurasia, painting an increasingly complex picture of their populations' structure that mostly indicates that late European Neanderthals belonged to a single metapopulation with no significant evidence of population structure. Here, we report the discovery of a late Neanderthal individual, nicknamed "Thorin," from Grotte Mandrin in Mediterranean France, and his genome. These dentognathic fossils, including a rare example of distomolars, are associated with a rich archeological record of Neanderthal final technological traditions in this region ∼50-42 thousand years ago. Thorin's genome reveals a relatively early divergence of ∼105 ka with other late Neanderthals. Thorin belonged to a population with a small group size that showed no genetic introgression with other known late European Neanderthals, revealing some 50 ka of genetic isolation of his lineage despite them living in neighboring regions. These results have important implications for resolving competing hypotheses about causes of the disappearance of the Neanderthals.

Early Neanderthal mandibular remains from Baume Moula-Guercy (Soyons, Ardèche).

We provide an ontogenetically-based comparative description of mandibular remains from Last Interglacial deposits (MIS 5e) at Baume Moula-Guercy and examine their affinities to European and Middle Eastern Middle-to-Late Pleistocene (≈MIS 14-MIS 1) Homo. Description of the M-G2-419 right partial mandibular corpus with M1-3 (15-16.0 years ±0.5 years) and mandibular fragments M-F4-77 and M-S-TNN1 is with reference to original fossils, casts, CT scans, literature descriptions, and virtual reconstructions. Our comparative sample is ontogenetically based and divided into a Preneanderthal-Neanderthal group and a Homo sapiens group. These groups are subdivided into (1) Preneanderthals (≈MIS 14-9), Early Neanderthals (MIS 7-5e), and Late Neanderthals (MIS 5d-3), and (2) Middle (MIS 5) and Upper (MIS 3-Pre-MIS 1) Paleolithic and recent H. sapiens. Standard techniques were employed for developmental age and sex determinations and measurements. The M-G2-419 mandible possesses corpus features that link it most closely with the Sima de los Huesos Preneanderthal and Early Neanderthal groups. These include mental foramen position, number, and height on the corpus, anterior marginal tubercle position, and mylohyoid line orientation. Metrically, the M-G2-419 mandibular corpus is small relative to adults in all groups, but the thickness/height relationship is like the adult condition. The thickness of the corpus is more like Neanderthal children than adolescents. Molar crown features suggest affinities with the Preneanderthal-Neanderthal group. The Moula-Guercy mandibles possess a combination of Neanderthal-associated features that provides insights into MIS 7-5e paleodeme variation and the timing of appearance of MIS 5d-3 Neanderthal facial features.

Homo sapiens reached the higher latitudes of Europe by 45,000 years ago

The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in Europe is associated with the regional disappearance of Neanderthals and the spread of Homo sapiens. Late Neanderthals persisted in western Europe several millennia after the occurrence of H. sapiens in eastern Europe1. Local hybridization between the two groups occurred2, but not on all occasions3. Archaeological evidence also indicates the presence of several technocomplexes during this transition, complicating our understanding and the association of behavioural adaptations with specific hominin groups4. One such technocomplex for which the makers are unknown is the Lincombian–Ranisian–Jerzmanowician (LRJ), which has been described in northwestern and central Europe5–8. Here we present the morphological and proteomic taxonomic identification, mitochondrial DNA analysis and direct radiocarbon dating of human remains directly associated with an LRJ assemblage at the site Ilsenhöhle in Ranis (Germany). These human remains are among the earliest directly dated Upper Palaeolithic H. sapiens remains in Eurasia. We show that early H. sapiens associated with the LRJ were present in central and northwestern Europe long before the extinction of late Neanderthals in southwestern Europe. Our results strengthen the notion of a patchwork of distinct human populations and technocomplexes present in Europe during this transitional period.

New data on Neanderthal behavior in the Altai region, Russia

Until recently, only two sites yielding Micoquian/Keilmessergruppen (KGM) lithic assemblages were known in the Russian Altai Region, which are the result of Late European Neanderthal migrations from Eastern Europe. European Micoquian/KMG sites, often located in close proximity to one another, vary functionally, reflecting complex behavioral patterns of Neanderthal populations. Conversely, two sites in the Altai Region are identified as base camps only, suggesting that sites with other functions either have yet been undiscovered or destroyed by post-depositional processes. Here, we present new data from Verkhnyaya Sibiryachikha Cave, located close to Okladnikov Cave in southern Siberia. A stone tool typical of the Micoquian/KMG was recovered from Verkhnyaya Sibiryachikha Layers 3, chronologically overlapping Neanderthal cultural strata uncovered in Okladnikov Cave. The tool's typology and chronology suggest that it belonged to a Neanderthal from Okladnikov Cave. Verkhnyaya Sibiryachikha Cave may have been used as a game observation point for hunters pursuing prey in the river valley below. Like their European cousins, late Neanderthals in the Altai Region explored areas near their habitations, which suggests no significant changes in the behavior of the Neanderthal population that migrated eastward into Siberia.

Heat Treatment of Flint at the Late Neanderthal Site Sesselfelsgrotte (Germany)

We examined lithic artifacts from the late Neanderthal site Sesselfelsgrotte (Bavaria, Germany) in order to evaluate the possibility of fire use and intentional flint heat treatment performed by late Neanderthals. We analyzed 1113 flint pieces from the G-layer complex (~60 to 45 kya; Micoquian) and 946 from the lower-layer complex (~115 to 70 kya; Mousterian). Based on macroscopic traits associated with the exposure of flint to heat and fire, we assigned artifacts to one of three groups: burnt, unburnt, and possibly intentionally heated. Our results show that while both complexes demonstrate the clear presence of fire, fire is more common in the younger G-layer complex. Moreover, possibly intentionally heated pieces are significantly more frequent in the G-layer complex, especially among the tools and specifically among side scrapers, suggesting a link between heat treatment and the production of these tools, most probably due to their functional and cultural significance. We therefore suggest that the flint in the G-layer complex of Sesselfelsgrotte underwent intentional heat treatment. The proportions of burnt flint artifacts in both complexes suggest an intensification in fire use at the site over time, while the appearance of possibly intentionally heated artifacts in the G-layer complex suggests the development of this advanced pyrotechnology by Neanderthals sometime between these two timeframes. Our results are supported by sedimentological and faunal data. We view these results as further indication of the advanced cognitive and technological capabilities of Neanderthals, which did not fall short of those of early modern humans.

Late Neanderthal “menu” from northern to southern Italy: freshwater and terrestrial animal resources

One of the unanswered questions in Palaeolithic studies is how Neanderthals adapted their subsistence strategies by changing their diet at such a late stage of their existence. Zooarchaeological and taphonomic studies are critical to determine anthropogenic behaviour and to accurately understand the strategies used to exploit different ecological niches. In this line of research, the present paper aims to provide a thorough assessment of the unpublished faunal assemblages from two Late Mousterian Italian sites: Riparo del Broion (northern Italy) and Roccia San Sebastiano cave (southern Italy). These two sites occupy two distant and different areas of Italy, however providing late Neanderthals coeval occupations dated between 50,000–44,000 cal BP.In this study we analysed more than 27,000 remains following a multidisciplinary approach that combines taxonomical, anatomical and taphonomic investigations. Moreover, an experimental study that supports the instrumental use of valve fragments of Anodonta sp. is also presented for Riparo del Broion. Strontium isotope analysis of cervid remains, the most exploited prey in both sites, provides useful information to explore selection of available animals, the mobility of human groups, and the composition of animal herds.In general, the characteristics of the territory of the two sites highlight the exploitation of different resources that could vary from almost specialized small game (Riparo del Broion) to selective ungulates (Roccia San Sebastiano) hunting strategies. At Riparo del Broion, the main exploitation of red deer was accompanied by beaver hunting, fishing, and shellfish gathering from freshwater lake environments. On the contrary, human groups at Roccia San Sebastiano cave hunted almost exclusively red deer, despite the sea was not far from the cave. The absence of shellfish and fish remains is remarkable. In addition, the transformation and use of diaphyseal bone flakes as retouchers at both sites and the presence of a probable “bone awl” at Roccia San Sebastiano, further confirm an extended capacity in the use of a large range of materials for different subsistence activities.Present results consist of the first zooarchaeological comparison of the Late Mousterian levels of Roccia San Sebastiano cave and Riparo del Broion. These allowed us to detail environments, and subsistence strategies of two Neanderthal groups that inhabited different ecological niches of the Italian territory and provide important data to disentangle possible changes in faunal exploitation strategies, butchering, processing, and cultural behaviours during the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in Italy.

Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician Industry and South Moravian Sites: a Homo sapiens Late Initial Upper Paleolithic with Bohunician Industrial Generic Roots in Europe.

This article re-examines the Lincombian-Ranisian-Jerzmanowician (LRJ) industry, a well-known Early Upper Paleolithic complex in northern Europe. It is widely thought that the LRJ was produced by late Neanderthals and that its industrial roots are in late Middle Paleolithic industries with bifacial leaf points in north-western Europe. On the basis of evidence from four recently excavated open-air sites in southern Moravia (Czech Republic) (Líšeň/Podolí I, Želešice III/Želešice-Hoynerhügel, Líšeň I/Líšeň-Čtvrtě, and Tvarožná X/Tvarožná, "Za školou"), combined with findings from two cave sites in Bohemia (Nad Kačákem Cave) and southern Moravia (Pekárna Cave) and critical re-examination of the LRJ sites and materials from other areas, we propose that the LRJ should actually be considered a late Initial Upper Paleolithic industry. Its initial dates are just before Heinrich Event 4 (HE-4) and the Campanian Ignimbrite (CI) super-eruption, c. 42-40kacal BP. We further propose that LRJ assemblages were produced by Homo sapiens, and that its roots are in the Bohunician industry. The LRJ originated as a result of a gradual technological transition, centering on the development of Levallois points into Jerzmanowice-type blade-points. It is also suggested that the LRJ industry first appeared in Moravia, in central Europe, and spread along with its makers (Homo sapiens) across the northern latitudes of central and western Europe. Accordingly, the IUP "Bohunician package" did not disappear in Europe but gave rise to another IUP industry successfully adapted for the then steppe-tundra belts in northern Europe.

Neanderthal child's maxilla from Baume Moula-Guercy (Soyons, Ardèche, France).

This article provides an ontogenetically-based comparative description of the Guercy 3 partial child's maxilla with Rdm2 -RM1 and unerupted RI2 -RP4 from Baume Moula-Guercy (MIS 5e) and examines its affinities to European and Middle Eastern Middle-to-Late Pleistocene (≈MIS 14-MIS 1) Homo. Description of the Guercy 3 maxilla and dentition (7.0 year ± 0.9 month) is based on observations of original fossils, casts, CT scans, literature descriptions, and virtual reconstructions. Our ontogenetic sample comprises a Preneanderthal-Neanderthal group and a Homo sapiens group. These groups are subdivided into (1) Preneanderthals (≈MIS 14-9), Early Neanderthals (MIS 7-5e), and Late Neanderthals (MIS 5d-3), and (2) Middle (MIS 5), Upper (MIS 3-2), and Late Upper Paleolithic (≈MIS 1), and recent H. sapiens. Standard techniques were employed for measurements and developmental age determinations.The Guercy 3 maxilla lacks changes found in Late Neanderthals, including the positioning of the root of the zygomatic process, infraorbital and nasal plates, premaxilla, buccal and labial alveolus, maxillary sinus, nasal cavity, and verticality of anterior tooth implantation. The morphology of the Guercy 3 maxilla more closely approximates that of Sima de los Huesos Preneanderthals, while the dentition more closely approximates the Early-Late Neanderthal condition. Maxillary remains of children and juveniles between MIS 14-MIS 5e are rare, and the available sample is fragmentary and distorted. Although fragmentary, the Guercy 3 maxilla is undistorted and provides new insights into the evolution of the midface in Neanderthals.

Reassessing palaeoenvironmental conditions during the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in the Cantabrian region (Southwestern Europe)

Climatic and environmental changes have been commonly proposed as driving factors behind the decline of Neanderthals in Europe. The Cantabrian region, in northern Iberia, is a key area for understanding the replacement of Neanderthals by Anatomically Modern Humans, where an early disappearance of Neanderthals in relation to other areas of Iberia has been proposed. To evaluate how climate might have influenced human behaviour during Marine Isotope Stage 3, an accurate review of palaeoecological conditions is required. For the first time, an assessment of the regional available terrestrial proxies linked to archaeo-palaeontological sites, including small vertebrate assemblages, pollen sequences, charcoal data and stable isotope studies on macromammals is undertaken in this region. In addition, records from macrofaunal assemblages and glacial records have also been considered. To standardise the information and allow inter-site comparison, data from pollen and small vertebrate sequences were transformed into quantitative climatic estimations of temperature and precipitation. Results show highly variable climatic shifts between archaeological levels, being consistent with the climatic fluctuations observed in the marine and ice core records. Small mammal assemblages reveal a mosaic landscape of open meadows followed by scattered forested areas. A progressive trend towards aridity from the end of the Mousterian to the early Aurignacian is reflected by changes in arboreal pollen, macromammal species and stable isotopes evidence on ungulates consumed by late Neanderthals and Anatomically Modern Humans in the region. This review suggests a decrease in temperatures and rainfall from 48,000 to 44,000 cal BP (after Heinrich Event 5) which coincides with the late Neanderthals in the region and followed by a populational hiatus until 43,000 cal BP. Despite the multiple intra-site environmental proxies available, this study challenges the fragmentary regional record during this key period for human evolution and reveals that further research is needed to obtain a complete regional high-resolution palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic reconstruction.

Inspecting human evolution from a cave. Late Neanderthals and early sapiens at Grotta di Fumane: present state and outlook.

Of the many critical phases of human evolution, one of the most investigated is the transition from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic with the pivotal bio-cultural substitution of Neanderthals by Homo sapiens in Western Eurasia. The complexity of this over ten thousands years phase raises from the ensemble of evidence ascribed to the diverse adaptations expressed by Neanderthals and the first representatives of our species. In countless archaeological records Neanderthals left clear traces of a cultural variability dotted with innovations in the technology of stone and bone tools, alongside with manifestations in the range of the symbolic sphere. Together with other aspects of daily life, this evidence contributes shedding light on the cognitive aptitudes of those hominins and reassessing gaps in Pleistocene human diversities. Among archaeological contexts, the cave of Fumane in the Monti Lessini (Veneto Pre-Alps, northeastern Italy) is a key site. It is positioned along the potential trajectory of hominins moving into southern Europe from eastern and southeastern regions and includes a finely layered sedimentary sequence with cultural layers ascribed to the Mousterian, Uluzzian, Aurignacian and Gravettian. The ensemble constitutes one of the most complete, detailed and dated continental stratigraphic series from a segment of the late Pleistocene between 50 and 30 ka cal BP in a cave context of Southern Europe. Assessments based on sedimentological and palaeontological record provide indicators for framing Neanderthals in their respective ecological contexts since the late Middle Pleistocene until their demise during MIS3. On-going research is producing data ascribable to the human ecological relations and the interaction with specific natural resources, thus contributing to shed light on the complexity of Neanderthal behavior. Thanks to the high-resolution archaeological record of the earliest appearances of Homo sapiens, Fumane also provides clues to compare life, subsistence, and cultures between these Pleistocene hominins for comprehensive reasonings on our unicity.

Endocranial anatomy of the Guercy 1 early Neanderthal from Baume Moula-Guercy (Soyons, Ardèche, France).

We provide the first comparative description of the endocranium of the Guercy 1 Early Neanderthal and examine its affinities to Preneanderthals, Neanderthals, and Homo sapiens. The Guercy 1 cranium derives from deposits chronostratigraphically and biostratigraphically dated to the Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e). For comparative purposes, we compiled a sample of European and Southwest Asian subadult and adult Middle-to-Late Pleistocene hominins (≈MIS 12-MIS 1; N=65). We sampled both a Preneanderthal-Neanderthal group and a Homo sapiens group. The Preneanderthal-Neanderthal group was further divided into three time-successive subgroups defined by associated MIS stages. Metric and morphological observations were made on original fossils and physical and virtual endocranial reconstructions. Guercy 1 and other Early Neanderthals, differ from Preneanderthals by increased development of the prefrontal cortex, precentral and postcentral gyri, inferior parietal lobule, and frontoparietal operculum. Early Neanderthal differ, in general, from Late Neanderthals by exhibiting less development in most of the latter brain structures. The late group additionally differentiates itself from the early group by a greater development of the rostral superior parietal lobule, angular gyrus, superior and middle temporal gyri, and caudal branches of the superior temporal gyrus. Endocranial morphology assessed along the Preneanderthal-Neanderthal sequence show that brain structures prominent in Preneanderthals are accentuated in Early-to-Late Neanderthals. However, both the Early and Late groups differentiate themselves by also showing regionally specific changes in brain development. This pattern of morphological change is consistent with a mosaic pattern of neural evolution in these Middle-to-Late Pleistocene hominins.

A Leaf Point Documents Hunting with Spears in the Middle Paleolithic at Hohle Fels, Germany

During the 2020 season at Hohle Fels Cave in the Ach Valley of southwestern Germany the excavation team from the University of Tübingen recovered a bifacial leaf point in archaeological horizon (AH) X. This horizon is the fifth deepest of the Middle Paleolithic horizons at the site and is located roughly 120 cm beneath the base of the rich Aurignacian layers of the cave. The new leaf point, or Blattspitze in German, is the first artifact of its kind found in situ in the Swabian caves since Gustav Riek’s excavation at Haldenstein Cave near the source of the Lone River recovered two leaf points in excellent preservation in 1936. The new find allowed our team to conduct the first techno-functional study of a freshly recovered leaf point from the European Middle Paleolithic. This study demonstrates that the leaf point was hafted at the less pointy end of the artifact. The leaf point bears clear damage to the pointed end of the artifact that occurred during a hunting episode. A Neanderthal knapper further damaged the tool during an attempt to resharpen and rejuvenate the tool. This damage was likely the reason the knapper discarded the leaf point at Hohle Fels. This result and a re-examination of the two leaf points from Haldenstein Cave indicate that late Neanderthals used Blattspitzen for hunting large game. The current results do not explicitly prove that spears with hafted leaf points were always thrown or used as thrusting spears, and one can easily imagine scenarios in which a weapon of this kind could be used in both ways. Ideally, the ongoing excavation at Hohle Fels will recover more leaf points, which will allow us to document the technological variability of this kind of tool with regard to its manufacture, function and life history. We also view the current research at Hohle Fels as an excellent opportunity to gain a better and more strongly contextualized understanding of the technological system linking lithic, botanical and osseous technologies during this phase of the Middle Paleolithic. This paper also considers the place that hafted leaf points have within the broader evolutionary development of hunting and projectile technology.

Neanderthal child's occipital from Baume Moula‐Guercy (Soyons, Ardèche, France)

AbstractObjectivesThis article provides an ontogenetically based comparative description of two immature occipital fragments from Baume Moula‐Guercy (MIS 5e) and examines their affinities to European and Middle Eastern Middle‐to‐Late Pleistocene (≈MIS 14–MIS ≈ 1) Homo.Materials and methodsDescription of the M‐S‐41 and M‐S‐61 occipital fragments (≈6–8 years) is based on observations of original fossils, casts, CT scans, literature descriptions, and virtual ectocranial and endocranial reconstructions. Our ontogenetically based sample represents a Preneanderthal‐Neanderthal group and a Homo sapiens group. These groups are subdivided into (1) Preneanderthals (≈MIS 14–9), Early Neanderthals (MIS 7–5e), and Late Neanderthals (MIS 5d‐3), and (2) Middle (MIS 5), Upper (MIS 3–1), and Late (MIS ≈ 1) Paleolithic H. sapiens. Measurements and developmental age determinations follow standard techniques.ResultsBased on the M‐S‐41/M‐S‐61 composite, the strongly convex upper occipital scale flattens into the vertical suprainiac fossa, as in immature Early Neanderthals. A doubled suprainiac fossa expressing a weakly developed bounding torus and pocking of the central region is typical of immature Neanderthals. The transverse torus is thickened medially, lacks significant lateral development, has a laterally placed protuberance, and is concave medially. A linear (triangular) tubercle, as opposed to an external occipital protuberance, is present. An occipital bun is absent.DiscussionThe occipital remains from Moula‐Guercy make a substantial contribution to the record of Neanderthal cranial evolution because immature Early Neanderthal occipitals are rare, fragmentary, and likely represent only two paleodemes (Krapina, La Chaise‐de‐Vouthon). The Moula‐Guercy occipital possesses characteristics well‐established in European Neanderthals by MIS 7, and it is most similar to the occipitals of other Early Neanderthals.

A taste for the unusual. Green, flat pebbles used by late Neanderthals

Neanderthals collected unusual, sometimes colorful mineral materials from different sources. Several green serpentinite smooth pebbles with a flat shape and use modifications were unearthed at Fumane Cave in northern Italy. This study explores cognitive and functional criteria that influenced the selection and use of unique pebbles based on their regional geology, morphology, petrology, use wear, and residues. Besides the attraction for green materials, there is no evidence for the use of soft green and flat pebbles, like those from Fumane Cave, during the Middle Palaeolithic. Moreover, these materials were collected by Neanderthals only from ca. 44 ka cal BP, despite the large availability of green serpentine pebbles in the alluvial beds near the cave. Ultimately, we provide new data to understand the role of aesthetic and technological factors in shaping the human behavioral range in the Middle Paleolithic.

Early life of Neanderthals

The early onset of weaning in modern humans has been linked to the high nutritional demand of brain development that is intimately connected with infant physiology and growth rate. In Neanderthals, ontogenetic patterns in early life are still debated, with some studies suggesting an accelerated development and others indicating only subtle differences vs. modern humans. Here we report the onset of weaning and rates of enamel growth using an unprecedented sample set of three late (∼70 to 50 ka) Neanderthals and one Upper Paleolithic modern human from northeastern Italy via spatially resolved chemical/isotopic analyses and histomorphometry of deciduous teeth. Our results reveal that the modern human nursing strategy, with onset of weaning at 5 to 6 mo, was present among these Neanderthals. This evidence, combined with dental development akin to modern humans, highlights their similar metabolic constraints during early life and excludes late weaning as a factor contributing to Neanderthals' demise.

Innovative Neanderthals: Results from an integrated analytical approach applied to backed stone tools

The production of prepared backed artifacts during the Paleolithic is recognized as an important step in the design of stone tools for manual activities and the development of human tool ergonomics. Backed artifacts are generally identified as proxies of so-called “modern” behavior, partly because they tend to be associated with systematic hafting, but mostly because they are widespread within Middle Stone Age (MSA) or Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) assemblages attributed to anatomically modern humans. However, in Europe these tools were first manufactured by Neanderthal groups associated with the Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition (MAT) techno-complex and Discoid and Levallois technologies, using a range of flake blanks. Investigating the reasons for this behavioral leap forward can help to unravel the development and diffusion of various aspects defining the behavioral complexity of Paleolithic humans. In this paper we present a detailed analysis of one of the oldest and richest collections of prepared backed items preserved in Europe. We study several dozens of what – in a broad sense – are considered backed artifacts, with both natural and predetermined knapped backs, recovered from unit A9 at Fumane Cave, which is dated to at least 47.6 cal ky, and is characterized by discoid technology. Our methodology integrates results obtained from technological, techno-functional and use-wear analyses, further supported by experimental data. Two distinctive types of anthropogenic modifications have been identified, both aimed at creating a back or at modifying and accommodating an already existing back. By cross-checking our results with use-wear data, we show that some of these modifications were aimed at adjusting the shapes of the tools (knives and/or scrapers) for manual handling, although traces consistent with hafting have been recognized on a few specimens. Contextual information allows us to infer that these adjustments involved mainly tools used in precision activities, whose design and production implies varying levels of expertise and technical skills. Although still not systematic or standardized, the kinds of complex tool-making implied by backing can be considered as typical feature in the technological repertoires of late Neanderthals.

Radiocarbon chronology of Middle and Upper Paleolithic sites in Serbia, Central Balkans

The Central Balkans, in present-day Serbia, was a potentially dynamic zone during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic (MP-UP), as it is situated between hypothesized dispersal routes of modern humans and refuges of late Neanderthals. However, the population history of the region remains poorly understood because there are little chronometric data from Late Pleistocene sites in Serbia. Here, we review the existing paleoanthropological record for the MP-UP in the Central Balkans and surrounding areas. Then, we add to it by reporting radiocarbon dates from two Serbian cave sites, Pešturina and Hadži Prodanova, which contain Middle Paleolithic and Gravettian assemblages. The results provide reliable human occurrence-dates older than 39 ka calibrated radiocarbon years before present (cal BP) and between 34 and 28 ka cal BP. As shallow palimpsest deposits with low artifact yields, the sites are not ideal contexts for establishing chrono-cultural stratigraphy. However, it is proposed that the occupants before 39 ka cal BP were Neanderthals producing MP artifacts, while those after 34 ka cal BP were modern humans with Gravettian traditions.

Looking for provisioning places of shaped tools of the late Neanderthals: A study of a Micoquian open-air site, Pietraszyn 49a (southwestern Poland)

The purpose of this article is to yield new insights into the topic of provisioning places of late Neanderthals using records from the central European Micoquian workshop Pietraszyn 49a, located in southwestern Poland. The site has been radiometrically dated back, using optically stimulated luminescence, to the final phase of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 or the beginning of MIS 3. The technological study, supported by numerous refits, shows that the main goals of manufacturing were shaped tools typologically corresponding to knives, handaxes, and bifacial scrapers. Considering the large variety of lithic raw materials and technical features, it can also be concluded that this assemblage resulted from the activity of at least several individuals. A microscopic investigation of use-wear traces indicates that this place was integrated within other elements of foraging zones, such as killing or butchering sites.

The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition at El Mirón Cave (Cantabria, Spain)

The use of caves during the Late Middle and Early Upper Palaeolithic in Europe was often characterized by alternation between humans (Neandertals and Anatomically Modern Humans) and carnivores. One of the most important karstic areas in Europe that contains a rich archaeological record during this cultural period is the Cantabrian Region, northern Spain. We explore the archaeological evidence recovered from the lower levels of the stratigraphic sequence in El Mirón Cave dated between 27 and 48ka cal BP – Gravettian and Mousterian in age. Zooarchaeological and taphonomic analyses of the limited number of mammal bones, together with the small lithic artefact assemblages, suggest brief human occupations after which the carcass remains left by humans and, composed mainly of Spanish ibex, red deer and some leporids, were scavenged by carnivores. Carnivores were probably also agents of accumulation, especially in the two lowest layers in which artifacts are most scarce. Notable palaeontological finds include remains of mammoth and leopard. Stable isotopic analyses of Spanish ibex remains provide information of relatively open landscape and suggest that cooler conditions prevailed during the Early Upper Palaeolithic. The results of this research offer an insight on the type of cave use by humans and carnivores during the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic and a palaeoenvironmental reconstruction at the time late Neanderthals and early anatomically modern humans inhabited in the Cantabrian region.

Multi-Isotope investigations of ungulate bones and teeth from El Castillo and Covalejos caves (Cantabria, Spain): Implications for paleoenvironment reconstructions across the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic transition

The Cantabrian region of Northern Spain was an important area of human occupation during the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic as the rich archaeological record demonstrates. The environmental conditions experienced by late Neanderthals and Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH) in the region during MIS3 are still poorly known, but are crucial to understand the role climatic instability could have had on the adaptations of these populations. In this study, a series of archaeological levels with Mousterian and Aurignacian artefact assemblages, dating between 49 and 35 ka uncal. BP, from the sites of El Castillo and Covalejos caves in Cantabria were studied using multi-isotope techniques including bone collagen δ13C, δ15N and δ34S analysis and a pilot study based on tooth enamel δ18O and δ13C. Results at Covalejos indicate a large range in δ15N values observable within both Mousterian Level D and Aurignacian Level B, suggesting the presence of different micro-environments within the local area at certain times during each temporal period. Within Aurignacian Level C and Mousterian Level J, the δ15N values range is much smaller, but shows consistency in the parts of the landscape being exploited during both times. Neanderthals and AMH appear to have been procuring animals from isotopically similar zones (isozones) when they occupied Covalejos. The variations in δ34S values between levels analysed at Covalejos also implies the use of a variety of hunting locations by both late Neanderthals and AMH. At El Castillo, δ13C and δ15N values show great consistency between levels, indicating that animals were being hunted from the same isozones when the site was presumably occupied by the two human species. The mosaic landscapes of Cantabria may have buffered the sharp environmental fluctuations that occurred during late MIS3 throughout Europe, providing suitable habitats for the key prey ungulate species that were routinely exploited throughout the Middle and Early Upper Palaeolithic. This environmental buffering may explain why this southerly, oceanic region was consistently occupied throughout this time of bio-cultural transition.