Late Ming Dynasty Research Articles

Conflict and Integration: Cultural Exchange between Western Missionaries and China in the Late Ming Dynasty

Conflict and Integration: Cultural Exchange between Western Missionaries and China in the Late Ming Dynasty

Translation of Earthliness: An Exploration of Translation Dislocation of Folk Language in Chin P'ing Mei in Late Ming Dynasty within the Framework of Aesthetic Reception

As the first full-lenght satiric novel, Jin Ping Mei (Chin P'ing Mei), written by Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng at the end of the Ming Dynasty, elaborates the social and worldly affairs comprehensively through vivid language and skillful usage of literary devices. Due to the richness of the folk language for the language forms, and the differences and great colloquial and regional characteristics to the Western readers in the geographical and time facets, for the purpose of reception in the target culture, the translator gives adjustment or modification to folk languages forms like dialect, slang, idiom, and proverbs, etc., which engenders certain translation dislocation to some extent. Through qualitative and comparative analyses, this paper aims to offer a preliminary exploration of the basic paradigm, causes, and construction process of the translation dislocation of the folk language in those two English translation versions of Jin Ping Mei from the four dimensions of readers' expectation horizons, aesthetic distance, integration of horizons, and the construction of respond-inviting structures under the perspective of aesthetic reception theory, so as to provide an avenue for English readers to delve into the peculiar translation dislocation of the folk language in the translation of Chinese classical works.

The collapse of the Ming Dynasty actually began with the Wanli megadrought: Insights from a hydroclimate reconstruction based on tree-ring δ18O over the past 460 years

Climate change has played a pivotal role in shaping Chinese history, especially during the Ming Dynasty. Previous studies have focused primarily on the Chongzhen megadrought, which is widely considered as the primary climatic perturbation behind the demise of the Ming Dynasty. However, relatively little is known about other severe drought events and their potential impact on the dynasty collapse. Additionally, the characteristics of an exceptional climatic anomaly termed the “Late Ming Weak Monsoon Period” are unclear. In this study, we reconstructed the historical variations of Palmer Drought Severity Index for July–September based on tree-ring stable oxygen isotopes (δ18O) from 1556 CE to 2015 CE in southwest Chinese Loess Plateau. Our study reveals a significant weakening of the Asian summer monsoon between 1561 CE and 1661 CE, consistent with the Late Ming Weak Monsoon Period, and unravels its structural characteristics in detail. Our reconstruction also captures a distinct humidification trend over northwest China since the early 2000s. Notably, in addition to the well-known Chongzhen megadrought, our study records the severe Wanli megdrought (1585–1590 CE) during the late Ming Dynasty, an event that rarely featured in earlier studies, exhibiting comparable duration and severity to the Chongzhen megadrought. Further analysis indicates that Wanli megadrought may have served as an early trigger for the collapse of the Ming Dynasty. Furthermore, our analysis implicates the El Niño–Southern Oscillation as a contributing factor in both the Wanli and Chongzhen megadroughts, and thus to the ultimate collapse of the Ming Dynasty by affecting the Asian summer monsoon intensity.

The locust plagues of the Ming Dynasty in Shandong Province, China

In today’s era of unprecedented climate change, research on environmental changes and natural disasters remains crucial. Locust plagues, among the most devastating agricultural disasters, had a profound impact on ancient China, especially during the Little Ice Age. This study utilizes historical records of locust plagues, employing semantic quantification, index construction and spatial analysis, to explore their temporal distribution, spatial patterns, migration characteristics, and associations with climate factors in Shandong during the Ming Dynasty. Key findings include: (1) Locust plagues in Shandong were severe, with 599 documented occurrences, primarily in summer and autumn, especially from April to August. The frequency and intensity of these outbreaks increased significantly during the mid to late Ming Dynasty, peaking in the late Ming period. (2) Geographically, locust plagues were concentrated in the northern river regions of Shandong, particularly in cities like Jinan, Dezhou, and Weifang, with marked clustering, spatial heterogeneity, and positive spatial correlation. (3) Locust plagues were strongly linked to droughts, showing significant temporal and spatial synchrony, but had no significant correlation with floods. These plagues were more likely to occur during cooler and drier periods, with both temperature and precipitation significantly influencing their occurrence.

The Influence of Jianjiang on Modern and Contemporary Landscape Painting

Jianjiang is a pioneering landscape painter in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty. His works are austere, cool, dry and quiet. Jianjiang learned from tradition and nature, combined with his own emotional personality, formed a unique painting language and artistic outlook. The formal language in Jianjiang landscape painting works is rich, and the schema presented is unique. Jianjiang's painting art has been around for hundreds of years. When reading Jianjiang's works, people still feel a strong sense of form and times. His distinctive painting language and spiritual connotation have a very profound influence on future generations of painters.

From Sacred Doctrine to Confucian Moral Practice: Giulio Aleni’s Cross-Cultural Interpretation of “Goodness and Evil of Human Nature”

This paper explores the cross-cultural interpretation of “the goodness and evil of human nature” by Jesuit missionary Giulio Aleni in the late Ming Dynasty, and it examines the intersections and complementarity between Catholicism and Confucianism in moral ethics based on Aleni’s integration. The study finds that Aleni, while basically adhering to the Catholic “original sin”, connected the “spirituality” endowed to humans at the beginning of God’s creation with the Confucian ontological concepts such as “ultimate good” (zhishan 至善); centering on “self-mastery” (zizhuan 自專), “sharpening” (dili 砥礪), and “overcoming nature” (kexing 克性), he actively guided the goodness–evil debate towards a Confucian practical morality, and sacred doctrines are served as an impetus of moral practices. The redemption, together with reward and punishment of God, further intensifies the ultimate concern and the way of transcendence. Aleni’s bridging and synthesizing of the two traditions is highly significant: concerning both sanctity and practicality of ethics can to some extent overcome the risks brought by the instrumentalization of ethics or the illusory issues of existence. This has important implications for the self-development and integration of Christian and Confucian morality.

Late Ming Dynasty weak monsoon induced a harmonized megadrought across north-to-south China

Historians and paleoclimatologists have long studied the connection between ecoclimatic changes and empire growth, transformation, and decline, but striking cases remain rare. Here, we introduce a tree-ring chronology from southern China to reconstruct changes in April-to-November water balance of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River over the last 464 years. The reconstruction supports a quantitative assessment of the spatiotemporal structure of the late Ming megadrought and potential effects on subsequent dynastic transitions. Our results indicate that the late Ming megadrought from 1625 – 1644 CE occurred in both the northern and southern parts of the East Asian monsoon region in China. However, variations in the onset, duration, and magnitude of this event differ between regions. The combination of factors such as Pacific sea surface temperature anomalies, weakened solar activity, and large-scale volcanic eruptions may have contributed to the occurrence of the late Ming megadrought. These factors are also identified as key drivers of interannual to decadal fluctuations in drought in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. Our reconstruction provides an historical context for the development of adaptive measures to mitigate future drought impacts in the region.

Fang Yizhi’s Transformation of the Consciousness-Only Theory in Yaodi Pao Zhuang: A Comparison and Analysis Based on Literature

Yaodi Pao Zhuang (Monk Yaodi Distills the Essence of the Zhuangzi, 藥地炮莊), written by Ming dynasty scholar Fang Yizhi (1611–1671), was one of the greatest annotations of Zhuangzi 庄子 in the late Ming dynasty. However, the Buddhist thought in Yaodi Pao Zhuang has scarcely been examined. Drawing on the revival of the consciousness-only (vijñaptimātratā, 唯識) theory during the Ming dynasty, this study discussed how Fang Yizhi transformed the theory to annotate Zhuangzi in Yaodi Pao Zhuang through literature comparison and logical analysis. Meanwhile, from a speculative viewpoint drawing on Yi studies (studies of the Yi Jing, 易學), Fang Yizhi demonstrated that “storehouse consciousness” (alaya-vijnana, 阿賴耶識) could have contrasting properties of defilement (samklesa, 染) and purity (suddha, 淨). Moreover, he proposed “consciousness is wisdom” to replace the consciousness-only view of “transforming consciousness into wisdom” prevailing in the Tang dynasty, thus providing the conditions for the interpenetration of the consciousness-only doctrine into Zhuangzi. This study’s results highlight the positive implications of Fang Yizhi’s mutually supportive interaction model of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism for addressing contemporary cultural conflicts.

Dialogues on the Issues of Theodicy in Late Ming Fujian

This paper aims to illustrate the dialogues on the issue of theodicy in late Ming Fujian. The Catholicism that entered China in the late Ming dynasty had a competitive relationship with indigenous religions in terms of their meaning systems. Catholicism emphasized the omniscience, omnibenevolence, and omnipotence of God, which created tensions and contradictions with the reality of phenomena such as the suffering of good people and the existence of evil. In the late Ming period, scholars, believers, and missionaries in the Fujian region engaged in deep exchanges and dialogues on theodicy, reflecting the significant attention and consideration given to the problem of evil. This paper first analyzes the dialogues on theodicy between the Fujian scholar Ye Xianggao (1559–1627) and the missionary Giulio Aleni (1582–1649). Next, it explores the discussions on the problem of evil between ordinary believers in the Fujian region and Giulio Aleni in their daily lives. Finally, it examines how anti-Catholics used the problem of evil to criticize Catholicism, and it also identifies the characteristics and impacts of Catholic theodicy in the late Ming and early Qing periods.

Studies, cultivation of the mind, and formation of character: The life of scholars in Jiangnan in the Late Ming Dynasty

During the late Ming Dynasty, the region of Jiangnan fostered a high number of remarkable figures who had extensive and important influence on the living world of officials and gentry as a whole. Apart from the requirements of the imperial civil service examination system, the family or clan’s education of descendants was particularly important. With respect to the plan for the life of a scholar, the civil service examinations were an avenue or ladder to becoming an outstanding member of society or entering the realm of success, and by this means, one could potentially achieve the objectives of wealth and high rank recognized by secular society. Progress in one’s studies lay at the heart of family culture and education, and this was naturally largely tied to the civil services examinations, while also being related to expectations regarding political life and service to the state, but for the most part, a fair degree of attention was also given to cultivation of the mind and the formation of character. This was not merely localized, but furthermore has had profound and far-reaching influence on Chinese society since the late Ming Dynasty. Further examination or analysis on these levels not only aids in revealing the atmosphere in that era, but furthermore also contributes to clearing such paradigmatic historical memories and impartially observing the shape of the lives of local intellectuals over the course of history at large. Setting out from Jiangnan allows us to better understand the sociocultural history of China since the traditional era as well as the living world of the Chinese people.

Taking refuge in melancholy amidst natural landscapes: Zhang Dai’s idle life in the Ming-Qing transition

During the middle to late periods of the Ming Dynasty, the commercial economy experienced striking development, yet political corruption and congestion of the imperial civil service examination system deprived many scholars of a pathway for elevation. Many people therefore opened up new avenues, preparing for the examinations while simultaneously exploring different ways of life, expanding new fields of activity so as to realize value in life. Zhang Dai 張岱, who originated from a great clan in Shaoxing, was one such person. Whilst reading, assembling scholars, critiquing theater, and engaging in other activities, he gradually created considerable renown and achievements for himself. In reviewing Zhang Dai’s life, his inability to enact change in the face of the incoherent society of the late Ming Dynasty was the first great tragedy of his life. He endured by leading a life of pleasure, realizing his ambition of accomplishing great things in a roundabout fashion. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, he experienced the second tragedy in his life, which caused him to nostalgically ponder the events of the past and, in his extreme grief, he resorted to the writing brush to express his thoughts and emotions, including writing history to pass on what was left of his life. Throughout his life, Zhang Dai produced many written works, perennially relying upon his writing to make a living, and leisure, extravagance, comfort, sorrow, lamentations and grief for the world all became subjects of his writing, ultimately allowing him to find a different path in life and achieve longevity in academic and cultural history.

Compiling and Publishing in late Ming Fuzhou: the Case of the Chashu 茶書

The Chashu 茶書 (Writings on Tea), also known as Chashu quanji 茶書全集 (Complete Collection of Writings on Tea), was published by the Fuzhou prefect Yu Zheng 喻政 (1571–?) in the early 1610s. It stands as the first dedicated collectanea of Chinese works on tea, encompassing essays that range from the Tang to the Ming period. Currently, only a few copies remain, all exhibiting variations. The present article analyses the structure, content, and paratextual elements of surviving imprints of the Chashu. It contextualizes the collection within late Ming dynasty book culture and the distinctive milieu of Fuzhou scholars and officials within which it was published. The article elucidates the compilation and publication process of the Chashu, while also accounting for the differences among editions of the collectanea.

The leisure views of Jiangnan’s literati in the late Ming: A comparative analysis of China and the West

Jiangnan in the late Ming Dynasty developed economy and thriving culture. Meanwhile combat among political parties was fierce and politics was darkness in imperial court, so literati intentionally chose to retreat into the mountains and forests to escape fame and live in seclusion, and this formed a pervasive trend of leisure living. With this background, based on their understanding and observation of leisure practice and phenomena, Jiangnan’s literati put forward many views on leisure, such as the unity of humans and nature, the usefulness of leisure, the divergence of the cultured and common, self-cultivation based on stillness, and fusion of the three religions. This closely matched the views of ancient and modern Western philosophers on leisure. Therefore, the late Ming was undoubtedly a self-aware age of leisure in ancient China and also an age in Chinese history with highly developed thought on leisure. The active elements and passive influence of the leisure views of Jiangnan’s literati undoubtedly have important theoretical constructivist and reference value for the practice of leisure in China today.

Ценностные основания стратагемного мышления (на примере минских «Книг мудрости» 1614–1634 гг.)

In the history of human thought, the question of the human wisdom nature, or the possibility to gain it, has never assumed a simple solution. Chinese thinkers and philosophers answered this question in different ways. The secular and practical character of understanding the concept of wisdom in the Chinese intellectual tradition was largely due to the influence of the ethical and political doctrine of Confucianism. From the point of view of Confucian ethics, the idea of using tricks and gimmicks was considered rather dubious. In the history of Chinese thought, there were periods when the intellectual elite had time to realize the beginning of a crisis in society and tried not only to theorize stratagem thinking, but also to find sufficient ethical grounds for applying stratagems in routine practices. The last third of the Ming dynasty reigning, when A Complete Book of Wisdom was written, was just such a period. At the same time, there was a serious value guidelines transformation of the educated class in China, which could also act as one of the factors in developing interest in stratagems and stratagem thinking. The aim of the article is to analyze the transformation of the value system of Chinese intellectuals, who lived in the last third of the Ming dynasty, and identify the value grounds of stratagem thinking described in A Complete Book of Wisdom. The article presents a classification of relevant factors that influenced the transformation of the value system of educated people under the late Ming. It describes and systematizes the data on the attitude of Ming emperors to educated people and Confucian ethical-political doctrine. The struggle not only for real power but also for symbolic power in the area of values and ideals was one of the drivers for the transformation of the value system. In addition, the commercialization of life and mass culture was the main factor in the significant change of Confucian philosophy. The article presents the analysis of educated people feelings and attitudes, which entailed changes in approaches to the process of knowledge and social practices. Thus, under the late Ming dynasty, there was the development of new models of social conflict resolution and value grounds of stratagem thinking.

Impact of Shi Tao Hot Phenomenon on Art Market

Shi Tao was a famous artist from the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty. His reputation, however, appears to have fluctuated over time. During the Qing Dynasty, Shi Tao’s influence was considered minimal and even marginalized. However, in the period of the Republic of China, he was highly valued and gained great fame. This affluent phenomenon is referred to as the "Shi Tao Hot". Along with this phenomenon, significant changes occurred in Shi Tao's art market. This article aims to examine the development and changes in Shi Tao's art market, thereby understanding some of the impacts brought about by the "Shi Tao Hot".

Contingent Companion with the Cantonese: Uncovering a Hidden History of Written Cantonese Christian Literature in the Late Nineteenth Century

This paper aims to uncover a hidden history of Cantonese Christian literature. Written Cantonese has been present since the late Ming dynasty in parallel to the emergence of a distinct Cantonese identity. Western missionaries, for the sake of evangelism, facilitated the development of written Cantonese in South China since the mid-nineteenth century. At that time, missionaries put a lot of effort into translating religious leaflets and booklets, the Bible, the book of prayers, and even Cantonese–English dictionaries. These works contributed to standardizing written Cantonese and indirectly helped to develop Cantonese identity. I will critically examine how Cantonese Christian literature declined for the sake of nationalism, as the first publication of Heheben 和合本 (Mandarin Union Version) in Protestant Christianity in 1919 represented the unification of the Church by using written Mandarin. After elaborating on the unintentional alliance of missionaries with Cantonese in the nineteenth century, in conclusion, I will make a brief comparison of Hong Kong Church in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, which is inactive in the continuous written Cantonese movement in Hong Kong.

Dialogues on the Theory of Reward for the Good and Retribution for the Evil during Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

Abstract The theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil (善恶报应) was one of the key issues in the dialogue between Catholicism and indigenous religions in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Under the monotheistic framework, Catholicism advocates a supernatural God for rewarding good and punishing evil. It thus had a more logical and rigorous theological argumentation at its disposal in its exchanges and dialogues with Chinese native religions on the standards of good and evil, the question of who has the right to reward and punish, the consequences of reward and retribution, and so on. This article begins by analyzing the Confucian theory of stimulus-response between the heaven and human beings (天人感应). Secondly, it sketches the views expressed by the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil in Buddhism and Taoism. Then, it discusses the Catholic views on rewarding good and punishing evil during late Ming and early Qing, and also examines the responses of the native religions of China to the Catholic views on rewarding good and punishing evil. Finally, it summarizes the similarities and differences of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. As for the intention to do good, there were some commonalities between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in the movement to promote good deeds during late Ming and early Qing. However, they were distinct in the perspective of the standards of good and evil, the subjects of retribution, and the roles of individuals in retribution, which caused the conflicts between Catholicism and its opponents in China. The introduction of the Catholic theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil has undoubtedly further enriched Chinese religious thoughts since the late Ming dynasty.

The Indigenization Strategies of Catholic Painting in Early 20th Century China

The spread of Christianity to China initiated a process of indigenization, particularly evident in Christian art. This study explores the indigenization of early 20th-century Chinese Christian paintings through literature reviews, case studies, and comparative research. The analysis covers four forms of primary research. First, it explores the indigenization of Christian concepts, tracing their development from the introduction of Nestorian Christianity in the Tang dynasty through the establishment of Fu Jen Catholic University in the Republican era. Matteo Ricci’s implementation of the “Ricci Rule” during the late Ming dynasty, subsequently expanded by Celso Costantini, played a crucial role in the indigenous adaptation of Christian painting in China. The second facet focuses on the Beijing Catholic School of Painting, led by Chen Yuandu, a group that innovated Chinese Christian art by integrating local artistic expressions with traditional depictions of saints, assimilating symbols from Chinese literati painting, and preserving time-honored Chinese painting techniques. The third facet examines the strategy behind Christian painting methods. Fourth, this study discusses how the Fu Jen School faced varied reception and evaluations from domestic and international audiences under the complex social currents of the Republic of China and how the artists reflected the national spirit and artistic responsibility in their narrative paintings. Fundamentally, the practice of Christian painting at the early 20th-century Catholic School is not only an innovative artistic endeavor but also a significant case of cultural exchange between East and West and religious localization.

Dialogues on the Theory of Reward for the Good and Retribution for the Evil during Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

The theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil (善恶报应) was one of the key issues in the dialogue between Catholicism and indigenous religions in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Under the monotheistic framework, Catholicism advocates supernatural God for rewarding good and punishing evil, thus it had a more logical and rigorous theological arguments. It had exchanges and dialogues with Chinese native religions on the standards of good and evil, who has the rights to reward and punish, and the results of reward and retribution and so on. This article firstly analyzes the Confucian theory of stimulus-response between the heaven and human beings (天人感应). It secondly illustrates the view of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil in Buddhism and Taoism. Then it discusses the Catholic views on rewarding good and punishing evil during late Ming and early Qing, and it also reviews the responses of the native religions in China to Catholic view of rewarding good and punishing evil. Finally, it summarizes the sameness and differences of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. As to the intentional to do goods, there were some commonalities between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in the movement of promoting good deeds during late Ming and early Qing. However, there were distinct in the perspective of the standards of good and evil, the subjects of retribution and the roles of individuals in retribution, which caused the conflicts between Catholicism and its opponents in China. The introduction of Catholic theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil undoubtedly further enriched Chinese religious thoughts since the late Ming dynasty.

The First Croatian to Arrive in China, Jesuit Ivan Vreman (1583–1620)

Abstract The Croatian Jesuit Ivan Vreman is recorded in historical literature as the first Croatian to arrive in China. He was born in Split, Dalmatia in 1583, joined the Jesuit Order in 1600, set sail from Portugal for Asia in 1615, arrived first in Macao of China in 1616, and then traveled northward into the mainland of China. He died of illness in Nanchang in 1620 at the age of 37. This article, with the help of historical materials in Croatian, Latin, English, Chinese, and other languages, reconstructs the life of Ivan Vreman and the history of cultural exchange between the East and the West in the late Ming dynasty from several aspects, including his educational background, scientific achievements, missionary journey to the East, and experiences in China.