Bronze Research Articles

О литейной форме из поселения эпохи бронзы Тарангул в Актюбинском Приуралье

Introduction. In 2021, the Mugodzhar (Mugalzhar) Crew of the Margulan Institute of Archaeology investigated the site of Tarangul and discovered a casting mold ― a rare artifact of utmost interest related to metal production and processing. Goals. The article seeks to describe and analyze the Bronze Age mold from Tarangul located in the Aktobe Cis-Urals, introduce into scholarly circulation some newly obtained scientific data. Results. The implemented analyses include those of natural science (micro-wear and spectral ones) and comparative typology, the latter to yield a classification of castings and their cultural affiliation. The tool mold has two surfaces with negative impressions. The first one was used to cast three sickles, while the second one (once consisted of two pieces) would cast a flat adze. The shapes attest to the mold was used to cast Kundravinskaya-type sickles widespread across the Late Bronze Age Southern Urals, Middle Volga, and Western Siberia. Kundravinskaya-type sickles are associated with the Alakul culture, the Kozhumberdy cultural group being a local variant of the latter in the region under study. The shape of the impression on the reverse side is characteristic of adzes from the Alakul era discovered in western parts of Eurasia’s steppe zone. The study concludes the mold had first consisted of two pieces and been used to cast adzes, and after the other piece was lost or damaged it started being used to cast sickles. The spectral analysis shows the castings were basically made from copper, and detects some traces of alloying. Another finding is that the three mold negatives were used not simultaneously but rather when and as it was necessary. In general, the conducted tests have well reconstructed the manufacturing techniques and stages of use for the mold from the Late Bronze Age settlement of Tarangul in the Aktobe Cis-Urals, and highlighted certain aspects in the study of molds as a specific source on metal production techniques and technologies in prehistory.

Результаты раскопок грунтового могильника Максимовка I в лесостепном Поволжье в 2019 г.

Introduction. The work publishes some results of excavations at the Maksimovka I grave field. Goals. So, the article seeks to introduce materials of the 2019 excavations. To facilitate this, the paper shall describe and characterize the investigated archaeological complexes, establish their cultural and chronological attributions. Materials. Archaeological material from the occupation layer comprises Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze Age, and eighteenth/twentieth century pottery, flint tools, and stone processing waste. Six burials were investigated at the site. Two burials had been destroyed and are nothing but heaps of heavily fragmented bones with no grave goods observed. In the third burial, the skeleton was lying on back in a northern-northwestern direction, accompanied by an iron knife and goat/sheep bones. The next burial consisted of four skulls and compact clusters of skeletal bones located nearby. The latter’s grave goods included flint arrowheads, a scraper, a bone spearhead, a pendant, beads, piercings and marmot incisors. The fifth burial contained a seated skeleton facing northeast and accompanied by a flint plate, an arrowhead and beads. In the last burial, the skeleton was lying on back in a northern-northwestern direction, accompanied by an ornamented clay vessel. A part of structure 1 was also examined. Results. The work shows that a total of three burials date back to the Late Chalcolithic, one — to the Late Bronze Age, and one — to the Middle Ages. The cultural and chronological attribution of the remaining burial has not been determined yet. Conclusions. The excavations at the Maksimovka I grave field have yielded materials from different cultures and periods, including Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze Age, and Medieval complexes.

Crafting resilience: persistence and adaptation of the ceramic manufacture at Roca Vecchia from the Middle to the Final Bronze Age phases

Through the second millennium BC, Bronze Age communities of Southern Italy have shown a remarkable degree of resilience in coping with changes in both macro-trends of cultural interaction and the landscape. In this paper, we will examine long-term processes of adaptation to shifting historical and environmental conditions from the vantage point of the impasto ware production at the site of Roca Vecchia (Melendugno-Lecce, IT), one of the main hubs of interaction for the Bronze Age of the Central Mediterranean. Sixty-eight ceramic individuals coming from the Middle to the Final Bronze Age levels and seven soil deposits from the site surroundings were analysed by petrography and fifteen were selected for SEM–EDX examination. We explore how changes in the complex history of the settlement and the surrounding landscape are matched in technological choices operated by the community of practice responsible for producing impasto pottery at Roca, in a moment when the long-range connection with the Aegean world was at its historical peak.

Use-wear evidence for the use of threshing sledges in Neolithic Greece

Threshing sledge or tribulum represents an important innovation in agricultural techniques. It allows processing huge amounts of cereals and it has often associated to an increased agricultural production. Their use is attested during the Late Neolithic/Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age both in south-western Asia and Europe. In the Mediterranean area, their use lasted until few decades ago. Recently, as part of project focused on the analysis of the early agricultural tools of Neolithic Greece, a few elements bearing macro- and microscopic use-wear traces visually similar to ethnographic and archaeological threshing sledges have been identified from a number of Early and Middle Neolithic sites (i.e., Achilleion, Platia Magoula Zarkou, Revenia Korinos, Paliambela Kolindros). In this paper, we present the result of their study, including technological and traceological analysis. To provide a stronger assessment of the nature of the observed use-wear traces a quantitative comparison with ethnographic and experimental use-wear traces is carried out by integrating confocal microscopy. Despite the low number of recorded artefacts, obtained results suggest that threshing sledges were in use since the early phases of the Neolithic in Greece.

Where are the missing boatyards? Steaming pits as boat building sites in the Nordic Bronze Age

Where are the missing boatyards? Steaming pits as boat building sites in the Nordic Bronze Age

FROM THE HEAT OF THE FIRE: A BIOGRAPHY OF AN EARLY BRONZE AGE BATTLE-AXE FROM CHURCH LAWTON, CHESHIRE

A battle-axe made of picrite from the Cwm Mawr rock source, near Hyssington, Powys, UK, was discovered during the archaeological excavation of two Early Bronze Age barrows at Church Lawton, near Alsager in Cheshire, UK, in 1982–3. It had been subjected to intense heat and then placed in a pit, next to the cremated remains of an adult, possibly a female. The heating has radically altered the appearance of the axe. Originally very smooth and dark grey-green, it now has a more granular and dusty feel, together with a mottled orange-reddish appearance. The Church Lawton battle-axe is particularly notable as it is among a small number of such artefacts in Britain to have been recovered from a barrow excavation conducted according to modern standards, as well as being directly associated with an interment dated by radiocarbon: 1893–1740 cal bc (3490 ± 29 bp). It is also the first implement from the Cwm Mawr rock source to be dated in this way. An initial examination of the battle-axe was conducted in the 1980s. A more exacting analysis of the object has now been undertaken, focusing on its petrology in relation to the rock source, its manufacture and use, and its heating. The new examination included the use of stereoscopic and metallographic microscopes. This paper details the new work and provides an enhanced understanding of the implement’s history and significance, emphasising the likely connections between the Early Bronze Age community at Church Lawton and others in the wider region.

Eating through time: Understanding dietary practices across late prehistory in the northeastern Iberian Peninsula.

This study seeks to contribute to the current understanding of dietary variation in the late Prehistory of the northeastern Iberian Peninsula by examining buccal dental microwear patterns alongside archeological data from the same populations. Teeth from 84 adult individuals from eight distinct samples spanning the Middle-Late Neolithic to the Middle Bronze Age (Cova de l'Avi, Cova de Can Sadurní, Cova de la Guineu, Cova Foradada, Cova del Trader, Roc de les Orenetes, Cova del Gegant, Cova dels Galls Carboners) were analyzed using optical microscopy to examine buccal dental microwear patterns. The analysis did not reveal clear chronological contrasts in the dietary habits of these samples. Nevertheless, significant differences emerged among the samples, leading to their classification into two distinct sets based on the abrasiveness of the diet informed by the microwear patterns. These findings offer similarities and differences among samples in the Iberian Peninsula, shedding light on the diverse lifestyles of these individuals. Integrating our new results with other available proxies points to a multifaceted specialization in dietary patterns among these samples, influenced by factors such as habitat, resource selection, and available technology. By contextualizing the results within the broader context of the Iberian Peninsula, this research discerns shared characteristics and distinctive adaptations in the dietary practices and subsistence strategies of these groups. Ultimately, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the intricate interplay between culture and environment in shaping human diets throughout late Prehistory.

Southbound transmission of metallurgy: new excavations at Jicha in the Hengduan Mountains, Yunnan

Abstract Jicha is a Bronze Age settlement located next to the upper Mekong River in the Hengduan Mountains of Yunnan, south-west China. Recent excavations have revealed details of successive occupation and copper-base industrial activity. The site's position and chronology provide evidence of north–south demographic movement and technological transmission along the eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau corridor.

The key characters of animal-style art in the Middle and Late Bronze Age

This paper aims to illuminate the archaeological cultures of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages in the neighboring regions of Mongolia. It delves into the phases and chronology of Mongolia’s Bronze Age development, scrutinizing key characters and their symbols in early animal-style art. The artistic expressions stemming from the nomadic way of life are categorized as “animal-style art,” wherein nomads transitioned the characters from two-dimensional to three-dimensional representations a significant and invaluable contribution to the history of global art. The distinctive characters of art from the Middle and Late Bronze Age not only played a central role in subsequent cultures such as Arjan, Pazyryk, Chandman- Sagil, Slab Burial, and Tagar but also evolved in terms of expressive meaning, attaining a heightened level of perfection. In other words, the origins of this distinctive “animal-style art” can be traced back to the 13th century BC in Central Asia, particularly within the territory of present-day Mongolia. Subsequently, it proliferated across the expansive plains of Eurasia, reaching its artistic zenith between the 7th and 3rd centuries BC.

Copper for the early oxhide ingots traced to the South Urals

Oxhide ingots are flat, rectangular slabs of metal, most commonly of copper, with protruding corners of varying styles. These Late Bronze Age artifacts were widespread across the Mediterranean for approximately half a millennium between the 16th and 11th centuries BC. Although they are generally known as essentially a Cypriot “commodity brand” by the late 15th century BCE, the origin of this ingot’s distinct shape has remained unknown. With the expansion of the lead-isotope database of Eurasian copper ores, the origin of the oldest chemically characterized oxide ingots may now be defined. The bimodal lead isotope compositions of 15 early, pillow-shaped oxhide ingots excavated in Crete are consistent with those of copper ores from the Southern Urals, which are known to have been actively mined in the Bronze Age. Together, Pb isotope and trace element compositions indicate that the majority of the ingots were cast from copper derived from Ural-type Cu-Zn volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits. However, two ingots enriched in Ni, As, and Co match Main Ural Fault-type ores that are hosted by ultramafic rocks.The characteristic design of the pillow-shaped ingot was likely related to the particulars of overland transport, facilitating their long-distance conveyance on pack animals. There is further support of a non-Cypriot origin of this form in the possible association between the words for “ingot”, “copper” and “hide” across languages of Western Asia and the Mediterranean. Thus, an eastern origin of the oxhide form for ingots is likely.

Teeth pathology of horse from the khirgisuur satellite burials in Orkhon valley

The purpose of this research is to clarify the dental diseases of horses in the Khirgisuur satellite burials of the Late Bronze Age of Mongolia, and to discuss the age and sex of the selected horses. The study included 96 horse bones from #OOR-396th of Khirgisuur satellite burials in the Saikhan Bulgiin denj. The survey was conducted according to standard zooarchaeological methods. According to the results of the research, 35.4% of all horses had tooth decay, jaw inflammation or tumour, and tooth growth defects. It was also observed that young horses were predominantly used for sacrifice. In conclusion, in some cases, choices have been made to support the healthy growth of horses.

Incised graffiti on the rock art of Mongolian Altai

This article discuss a comparative analysis of the detailed images, methods, thematic compositions, and chronological context of incised graffiti found in the rock art of Tsagaan Salaa-Baga Oigor of Ulaankhus soum, Shiveet Khairkhan of Tsengel soum, and Khoid Khöltsööt in Buyant soum of the Bayan-Olgii Province, in the western region of the Mongolian Altai. At these three sites, a total of 24 incised images are present, showcasing depictions such as deer, which are frequently encountered in petroglyphs, alongside representations of humans and chariots. Chronologically, these carvings range from the Bronze Age to the Turkic period.

Reconstructing and tracing the evolution of the road networks in the Haidai region of China during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages

Reconstructing ancient transportation networks is critical to studying past human mobility patterns. China’s Haidai region was a thriving political and economic hub during the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. We used GIS spatial analysis techniques to build a “Settlement Interaction Model” based on archaeological data from the Haidai region during the Bronze and Early Iron Age (Shang Dynasty, Western Zhou Dynasty, Spring & Autumn Period, and Warring States period). The eight-level road network maps with traffic attributes were distinguished based on topography and settlement size. The total lengths of the road networks were estimated to be 19,112 km in the Shang Dynasty, 35,269 km in the Western Zhou Dynasty, 51,555 km in the Spring & Autumn Period, and 77,456 km in the Warring States Period, with the average road flows of 6.6, 31.7, 42.8, and 75.5, respectively. The Z score and one-sample t-test (p < 0.01) confirmed the reliability of the reconstructed road networks. The Shang Dynasty saw the sporadic appearance of simple road routes. More complex routes emerged during the Western Zhou Dynasty and Spring & Autumn Period. The road networks were finally built during the Warring States Period. The development of road networks was closely related to population growth and urbanization. Exploring methods for reconstructing road networks may help us uncover ancient road networks and better understand ancient cultural exchanges.

Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of poorly stratified sites using malacological assemblages of archaeological features: A case study in Reims (NE France)

At the 53 ter rue de Louvois, in Reims, a number of human settlements dating from the Mesolithic period to the Early Middle Ages have been uncovered. Located on a footslope, these successive settlements are evidenced by archaeological features such as pits and ditches, which broadly appear at the same stratigraphic level. These features of different ages therefore provide valuable opportunities for sedimentary records in a context where natural stratification is poor. The examination of sedimentary archives sourced from archaeological features reveals distinct environmental phases interspersed with hiatuses stemming from the intermittent human habitation of the site. The initial phase provides insights into the early Holocene period, particularly during the First Mesolithic, illustrating the emergence of a pioneering semi-forest environment between around 9200 and 8200 cal. BC. Subsequently, Phase 2a, dated between 7050 and 6250 cal. BC, witnesses the expansion of deciduous forests during the Second Mesolithic. This expansion peaks during the Middle Neolithic (4300–3500 cal. BC), despite the construction of an enclosure in Phase 2b. The site is later cleared, at an unknown date between the end of the Middle Neolithic and the beginning of the Iron Age, probably during the late Bronze Age, between 1300 and 800 cal. BC. Phase 3 is thus characterised by the dominance of a dry grassland environment from the Hallstatt period through the early Middle Ages. This regional example illustrates the remarkable potential of malacological remains for reconstructing palaeoenvironments in poorly stratified contexts, as close as possible to human settlements and outside wetlands, the main sites for palynological investigations.

Earliest Mule Remains from Early Bronze Age Central Anatolia

This paper discusses the discoveries of early donkey and the earliest mule remains in Central Anatolia from the site Derekutuğun. This site represents the remains of a village dating back to the Early Bronze Age and Assyrian Trade Colonies period, associated with mining. The archaeofaunal assemblage was studied by the author and his team using classical archaeozoological methods. The dental remains of the Equidae found at Derekutuğun have been re-examined and are described in this article. The dental evidence indicates that donkeys, and possibly the earliest mules ever found in Central Anatolia, were kept at this site. Although the paper is based on the archaeozoological remains, written sources from the period also support the faunal identification. Derekutuğun was a small settlement that specialized in processing copper ore, and which was an important hub for a trade network because of its extensive mining and extraction operations.

3D Modelling Approach to Enhance the Characterization of a Bronze Age Nuragic Site

Megalithism in Sardinia (Italy) had its highest expression during the Bronze Age with the creation of monumental complexes known as Nuraghes. These unique monuments have recently been the subject of in-depth investigations for their potential to be recognized as World Heritage Sites (by UNESCO). The main purpose of our research was to make a contribution to obtain a more in-depth characterization of these monuments by testing a 3D model of a complex Nuraghe, integrated with an analysis of the geolithological context. This work first focused on the geological and typological investigation of the materials used in its construction, which was then compared with the geolithological characteristics of the region. A survey of the outcropping remains was carried out by means of Structure-from-Motion Multi-View Stereo (SfM-MVS) photogrammetry with UAV ground and aerial acquisition using APS-C photo sensors, georeferenced with an RTK-GNSS ground survey. The level of accuracy of our digital models shows the potential of the proposed method, giving accurate and geometrically consistent 3D reconstructions in terms of georeferencing error, shape and surface. The survey method allows for the virtualization of the current state of conservation of the Nuraghe, giving a solid basis to set up further (future) archaeological excavations and to contribute to knowledge on the architecture of the structures. This study also provides useful information on the nature and origin of the construction materials and proposes a hypothesis on the original dimensions of the monument, which is often a topic of debate in the world of archaeology.

Archaeobotanical data from the Sabor Valley reveal shifting moments in landscape and agriculture in NW Iberia during the Holocene

NW Iberia is dominated by Atlantic climate areas that favour pollen preservation, useful for palaeoecological studies. However, the region also includes Mediterranean sectors in which preservation of such palaeoenvironmental evidence is more difficult. To overcome these constraints, archaeological plant macroremains can be used to help characterize flora and vegetation dynamics at a local and regional level. To fill the gap in knowledge in an understudied Mediterranean region, a large archaeobotanical study was conducted at the river Sabor valley, NE Portugal. With 13 archaeological sites sampled for charcoal, fruits and seeds, it allowed the study of vegetation throughout the Holocene, starting in the Mesolithic up to Modern times, with some chronological gaps. Tree taxa dominates the older period and an expansion of shrubby taxa since Bronze age was observed. Diversification of plants used during the Iron Age and Roman period suggests an intensification of resources exploitation and deforestation. These trends seem to be related with changes in human settlements and productive strategies. During Prehistory, agricultural fields were established in flat and wide areas, and, during Iron Age, fortified granaries were used to store large amounts of grains, particularly free-threshing wheat. Drastic changes in settlement during Roman times and the establishment of small farms producing wine and/or olive oil were testified by the occurrence of Olea and Vitis in both anthracological and carpological datasets. Data from more recent periods is scarce. Results highlight that the combination of several proxies and integration of archaeological evidence helps to understand ecological dynamics in areas without pollen data and contributes to the characterization of heterogeneous areas under diverse climatic conditions and with a variety of social trends.

Mortuary Practices, Rituality, and Commemorative Places: A View of Kohne Tepesi in the Southern Basin of the Araxes River, Iran

ABSTRACT Ritual practices as behavior, and the cognitive acknowledgment of life and death, foster a depth in social identity, collective social memory, and a societal worldview. This paper outlines the evidence of Early Bronze Age burial practices in northwestern Iran to discuss the newly discovered chamber tombs at Kohne Tepesi within the broader context of mortuary practices during the middle and last part of the 3rd millennium b.c. The findings from Kohne Tepesi support the idea that, at least for parts of Kura-Araxes society, burial rites and commemoration of the dead played a crucial role in their worldview. Furthermore, this site demonstrates that the changes in symbolic practices and social behavior during the Early Kurgan period were not spontaneous but rooted in the last phases of the Kura-Araxes period and that the perceptions of earlier traditions had been conserved in long-term social memory.

Bringing together macro- and micro-botanical remains in Bronze Age Cyprus: The cases of Alambra-Kato Lakkos and Agios Sozomenos-Ampelia

The integrated analysis of macrobotanical and microbotanical remains has the potential to contribute toward a holistic reconstruction of the interactions of past humans and plants at regional and interregional levels. This paper focuses on the Bronze Age in Cyprus and specifically, on the processing, storage and consumption of plants and plant-based foods, through the study of carbonized seeds and starch granules. The selected samples come from the Bronze Age sites of Agios Sozomenos-Ampelia and Alambra-Kato Lakkos. For the site of Agios Sozomenos-Ampelia, the archaeobotanical material derives from contexts connected with domestic and storage activities dating to the Late Cypriot period (ca. 1340–1200 BCE). All the potsherds originate from pithoi, and therefore are closely connected to food storage. The archaeobotanical samples from Alambra-Kato Lakkos derive from funerary contexts and have been collected from the interior of ceramic grave goods, such as cooking pots, bowls and jugs dating from the Early Cypriot III to the Middle Cypriot II periods (ca 2000–1700 BCE).

Temporal pattern of dental caries at the western flank of the Central Plateau of Iran, c. 2700 BCE – 1600 CE

ObjectiveTo analyze the overall frequency and inter-tooth patterns of caries in three populations from ancient cemeteries located along the western border of the Central Iranian Plateau as a means to explore whether the populations of Iran had greater access to fermentable sugars after the establishment of the great empires. MaterialsDental collections from Kafarved-Varzaneh (Early Bronze Age, MNI=66), Estark-Joshaqan (Iron Age, MNI=57), Tappeh Poustchi (Timurid and Safavid Period, MNI=34), together with comparative data from NE Syria. MethodsFrequencies of dental caries per tooth categories, location and size of carious lesions are analyzed using Smith’s Mean Measure of Divergence, Correspondence Analysis, χ2 and Kruskal-Wallis tests. ResultsThere are minimal differences in overall frequencies of carious lesions at Iranian sites, regardless of the chronology, but notable differences at Syrian sites. The inter-tooth pattern at the Iron Age cemetery in Estark appears distinctly different than the other Iranian sites and the comparative samples from Syria. ConclusionsDivergent subsistence strategies may be linked with different inter-tooth patterns since people buried at Estark were mobile herders, while the other cemeteries were used by settled farmers. SignificanceThis comprehensive research on dental caries in three chronologically diverse populations in Iran sheds light on the association between dental caries and subsistence strategies, and introduces the Smith’s Mean Measure of Divergence to explore inter-tooth carious patterns, which may prove useful to other researchers seeking to understand the relationships between subsistence, diet, and the presence of carious lesions. LimitationsThe studied sample size is relatively small and therefore its temporal/regional distribution produces low-resolution results. Suggestions for further researchMore systematic research on the patterns of dental caries is necessary to produce more fine-grained reconstructions of diet and subsistence in Iran and around the globe.