Late 3rd Century Research Articles

Revisiting the Issue of Attribution of Some Catacomb Monuments Groups from the South of Eastern Europe in the Late 3rd – early 5th Centuries

The catacomb funerary ritual had a widespread occurrence among the southern Eastern European population in late Roman times and at the beginning of the Great Migration Period. The Alan culture monuments of the 2nd – 4th centuries AD from the North Caucasus and the “Alans-Tanaites” nomadic culture of the late 3rd – 4th centuries AD feature the burial ritual most widely and vividly. Evidently, the migration occurred in a westerly direction from the “Alan-Tanaitian” culture area in the late 3rd century, resulting in the appearance of a group of under-kurgan burials in the steppe zone of the Dniester-Danube interfluve. It is possible that the people who left these kurgans in the 4th century were assimilated by the Chernyakhov culture bearers and switched to a sedentary lifestyle, having lost the kurgan funeral ritual (Belen’koe burial ground) but retained the catacomb burial structure of almost predominantly type II. The catacomb burials under the kurgans graphically feature the Alans-Tanaites fate after the encounter with the Huns, who defeated and subjugated the Alans-Tanaites, partly incorporating the vanquished population into their military and political union. The Alans-Tanaites took part in the campaign in Transcaucasia and Western Asia as part of the Hunnic army (395–398), as evidenced by the specific forms of the catacombs in the kurgans of the Palasa-Syrt burial ground from the Western Caspian region. A group of kurgan catacombs in the Middle Don and the Left Bank of the Dnieper features the partial outflow of the Alans-Tanaites from the Volga-Don steppes under the pressure of the Huns in the course of their expansion. A part of the Alans-Tanaites participated in the movement of the Huns to the west, as evidenced by the catacombs in the Budzhak steppe dating back to the last quarter of the 4th century.

THE COMPLEX OF FINDS FROM THE EXCAVATIONS IN TYRAS IN 1978. CHERNYAKHIV PERIOD OF THE ANCIENT CITY

Studies of ancient Tyras (North-Western Pontic region) have shown that the late Roman period of the city was associated with the population of the Chernyakhiv culture, a significant part of which were Germanic Goths. But the importance of this population in the city’s history has not been studied sufficiently, so new publications of finds should be of great interest. During the excavation in 1978 three vessels were discovered which were located probably in a small light building. These are a gray-clay wheel-made mug and also a handmade jug and bowl. The mug is a typical product of Chernyakhiv culture, and the jug is a primitive imitation of Roman forms. As for the bowl, it is difficult to find analogies for it. This assemblage belongs to the latest layer of ancient Tyras which can be framed by the second half of the 3rd — early 5th century AD. Several other objects belong to the same period, as well as some Chernyakhiv finds from the cultural layer. These are fibulae (early items of them are dated to the middle — late 3rd century), axe-shaped pendants, combs made of deer horn. The types of amphorae of the late Roman period, known in Tyras, are also common on the Chernyakhiv settlements. Table and kitchen gray vessels clearly represent the types of dishes common throughout the territory of the Chernyakhiv culture. Occasionally there are fragments of vessels typical for the Wielbark (Gothic) culture. In the cultural layers of the Roman Tyras also the earlier group of gray-clay tableware presents, which is typologically different from the Chernyakhiv ware. Local workshops produced it (as well as red-clay products) until the mid-3rd century AD, when the activity of Greco-Roman craftsmen ceased. Later the new inhabitants of Tyras brought their own pottery. An important difference between the production technology of Greco-Roman and Chernyakhiv potters was the use of a fast potter’s wheel in the first case, and a slow wheel in the second one. The barbaric slow wheel has not been compared favorably with a fast one but the Chernihiv’s people have not the fast wheel. We propose an approximate reconstruction of the history of Tyras in the late Roman period. The military victories of the barbarians (the Gothic Wars of 238—270) caused the evacuation (between 248 and 253) of the Roman garrison and, probably, the inhabitants of the city. The period of the history of Tyras as an ancient city was over, however the merchant ships came to its port even during wars. To continue mutually beneficial trade (from the mid-3rd century and especially in the second half of the 4th century, when the peak of imports is observed) there was a fairly small number of «Chernyakhiv residents» in the destroyed city. Their activity might have been seasonal and limited to a few months of navigation per year. They handled the ships and transferred the goods to «their» merchants for resale in the depths of Chernyakhiv territory. These people built new houses among the ruins but their standard of living did not reach the level of Chernyakhiv rural settlements. Judging by the finds, they had a small number of wheel-made ceramics and replaced the shortage of ware by primitive handmade products. Summarizing the available materials, we can conclude the following. The last phase of ancient Tyras, known as the «post-Gothic» period, should be more reasonably called the «Chernyakhiv period». In the mid-3rd century Tyras lost the signs of a city, and till the early 5th century became a Chernyakhiv trade settlement.

Breviarium rerum gestarum populi romani в отечественной и зарубежной историографии: к вопросу об источниках Феста

The transformative processes within the Roman Empire during the late 3rd and early 4th centuries brought about significant changes across various aspects of societal life, including the educational sphere. The proliferation of Christianity played a pivotal role in reshaping existing pedagogical prac-tices, ideologies, and standards, particularly among the elite class. With the emergence of a new political landscape during the dominatum era, there arose a demand for revised didactic norms. These norms aimed to provide administrators and officials with comprehensive insights into the history of Rome, its allies, and adversaries. During the 360s, concise didactic guides or “Breviaries” were developed. Notable among them is Flavius Eutropius' “Breviarium ab Urbe condita” (“Breviary from the Founding of the City”), recognized as a prominent textbook on Late Antiquity history in contempo-rary scholarship. Another significant work is the “Breviarium rerum ges-tarum populi Romani” (“Breviary of the Deeds of the Roman People”), compiled by an individual known as Festus (? – ca. 380). However, this text remained on the fringes of scholarly discourse for some time due to its brev-ity and the author’s heavy reliance on predecessors. Most scholars agree that Festus' "Breviarium" serves as a didactic compendium intended for both the emperor, who may not have been highly educated, and the officials of his empire. While there is little doubt among researchers regarding the peda-gogical nature of this work, several other questions, such as those concern-ing Festus' sources and the degree of the author's independence, remain un-resolved in historiography. Currently, there exist two approaches to address-ing the issue of identifying and studying Festus' sources. The first, positivist approach (endorsed by R. Jacoby, E. Wölfflin, A. Bettendorff, D.V. Kareev), states that Festus' sources can be easily identified by comparing parallels between his texts and those of his predecessors. However, there are differing views within historiography regarding the number and composition of the sources used by Festus in creating the “Breviary.” The second, critical ap-proach (advocated by D. Büer), denies the possibility of compiling an ex-haustive list of the sources of the “Breviary” due to the limited tradition of creating texts of this genre that have reached us. This article examines the evolution of historians' judgments regarding the possibilities and methods of identifying and interpreting Festus' sources in the composition of the “Breviary,” as well as discussing methodological approaches to studying this work.

Жизнь и творчество Пань Юэ в контексте его «Оды о губном оргáне»

The research aims to determine the main characteristics of the life and literary works of one of the most prominent Chinese poets of the late 3rd century CE Pan Yue. The paper examines the biography of the author in its various periods and stages, the themes and uniqueness of his works in different traditional genres, as well as the historical fate and significance of his literary legacy. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that it is the first time in Russian Sinology that the life and poetry of Pan Yue become the subject of a specific and comprehensive study: a detailed periodization of his biography is provided, a thematic classification of his works is presented, the related discussions in Chinese tradition are analyzed, the key importance of Pan Yue’s “Rhapsody on the Mouth Organ” for understanding his worldview, creative work and life conflicts is revealed. As a result of the research, the main periods and stages in Pan Yue’s biography have been established; the contradictory nature of traditional evaluations of the poet’s verses has been explained; the main themes of his works with the central theme of mourning for the deceased have been identified; the aesthetic significance of the category of sorrow in Pan Yue’s literary works as a means of restoring harmony and life has been clarified.

Новые исследования Бесланского курганного катакомбного могильника

This article publishes the results of archaeological excavations of five kurgans discovered using geophysical methods at the Beslan kurgan catacomb burial ground in the Republic of North Ossetia – Alania. Smallscale excavations in different parts of the vast Beslan necropolis make it possible to draw some conclusions. Firstly, the development of the necropolis proceeded in the east direction from the Zilgi settlement. Traces of an unfortified settlement were revealed 230 m from the eastern outskirts of the settlement which was identified by presence of several household pits. In this study, the eastern boundary of the settlement of Zilgi has demonstrably been traced at the time of its maximum expansion most likely dating back to the 3rd century AD. A total of 5 kurgans surrounded by small ditches and containing 6 burials were excavated. The earliest is the kurgan 878, which can be broadly dated back to the late 2nd and early 3rd century AD in terms of its construction design of the funerary structure. The kurgans 874 and 875 located on the eastern periphery of the necropolis can be dated back to the second or third quarter of the 4th century AD according to the characteristics of the strap set and obviously they reflect a period of maximum expansion of the burial area. In the second half of the 6th century AD, burials again occurred in the part of the necropolis adjacent to the fortress, as evidence by the kurgans 876 and 877 containing objects of that time. It is most likely that the population abandoned Zilgi fortified settlement in the 7th century AD, which is confirmed by both the known finds from the cultural layer of the monument, and the materials from the burial mounds published in this work. The reasons for this phenomenon have yet to be established; for the time being, it can be suggested that it might be connected both with environmental changes and with the military and political situation in the North-Eastern Caucasus at that time.

Меотские сероглиняные кружки IV–III вв. до н.э.

The article is devoted to the typology and chronology of gray clay cups from the Maeotian burial grounds on the right bank of the Kuban river. Type 1 refers to biconical cups with a high, narrow neck widening upwards (30 items). A little over half of the studied vessels come from assemblages with a wide chronological range dating back to the 4th and early 3rd centuries BC, where they are accompanied by swords of the Sindian-Maeotian type or sets of pottery characteristic of this period. The remaining burials with cups can be dated more precisely by the finds of container amphorae from different centers (Heraclea, Thasos, Ikos, Mende, Sinope, etc.). The wide chronological framework of the existence of type 1 cups among the Maeotians can be determined within the first half of the 4th century BC, but their narrow chronology is limited to the second quarter of this century. Two versions of the origin of cups of this shape are put forward: the first one is from imported red clay vessels; the second one is from hand-made cups of the 6th–5th centuries BC. Type 2 is truncated conical cups widening upwards (13 items). There are not enough strong chronological references for a narrow dating of this type of cups. Furthermore, apart from the cups, imported vessels were found in the three assemblages including amphorae of Rhodes, a black glazed plate and a fish plate. As the analysis of the assemblages shows, type 2 cups existed among the Maeotians for a rather limited period from the late 3rd century BC up until the beginning of the next century.

Imputed genomes and haplotype-based analyses of the Picts of early medieval Scotland reveal fine-scale relatedness between Iron Age, early medieval and the modern people of the UK.

There are longstanding questions about the origins and ancestry of the Picts of early medieval Scotland (ca. 300-900 CE), prompted in part by exotic medieval origin myths, their enigmatic symbols and inscriptions, and the meagre textual evidence. The Picts, first mentioned in the late 3rd century CE resisted the Romans and went on to form a powerful kingdom that ruled over a large territory in northern Britain. In the 9th and 10th centuries Gaelic language, culture and identity became dominant, transforming the Pictish realm into Alba, the precursor to the medieval kingdom of Scotland. To date, no comprehensive analysis of Pictish genomes has been published, and questions about their biological relationships to other cultural groups living in Britain remain unanswered. Here we present two high-quality Pictish genomes (2.4 and 16.5X coverage) from central and northern Scotland dated from the 5th-7th century which we impute and co-analyse with >8,300 previously published ancient and modern genomes. Using allele frequency and haplotype-based approaches, we can firmly place the genomes within the Iron Age gene pool in Britain and demonstrate regional biological affinity. We also demonstrate the presence of population structure within Pictish groups, with Orcadian Picts being genetically distinct from their mainland contemporaries. When investigating Identity-By-Descent (IBD) with present-day genomes, we observe broad affinities between the mainland Pictish genomes and the present-day people living in western Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and Northumbria, but less with the rest of England, the Orkney islands and eastern Scotland-where the political centres of Pictland were located. The pre-Viking Age Orcadian Picts evidence a high degree of IBD sharing across modern Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Orkney islands, demonstrating substantial genetic continuity in Orkney for the last ~2,000 years. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA diversity at the Pictish cemetery of Lundin Links (n = 7) reveals absence of direct common female ancestors, with implications for broader social organisation. Overall, our study provides novel insights into the genetic affinities and population structure of the Picts and direct relationships between ancient and present-day groups of the UK.

춘천 중도 청동기시대 주거지군의 획기와 전개

The dwelling cluster of Jungdo-dong is largely divided into six stages and eight periodization. The period from the Stage I(11th century BC) to the Stage Ⅲ(9th century BC) in Jungdo-dong was characterized by a combination of raised band decoration pottery, doublerimmed vessel, and rounded bottom upright rimmed pottery; a small-sized plain pit hearth dwelling and a medium and large-sized stone-lined hearth dwelling are combined in the Stage I(11th century BC), a large-sized stone-lined hearth dwelling and a plain pit hearth dwelling in the Stage Ⅱ(10th century BC), and lastly a small-sized plain pit health dwelling in the Stage Ⅲ (9th century BC). In addition to the small-sized plain pit hearth dwelling and the rim perforation decorated pottery, mandolin-shaped bronze daggers, various stone daggers, stone spearheads, stone arrowheads, etc. are associated in the Stage Ⅳ-1 (6th century BC), but in the Stage Ⅳ-2(5th century BC), the compacted medium-sized clay surface, the plain pit hearth dwelling, and artifacts similar to those of the Stage Ⅳ-1 are associated.
 The compacted large-sized clay surface, the plain pit hearth dwelling, the rim perforation decorated pottery, etc. are combined in the Stage Ⅴ-1(4th century BC), the compacted middle-sized clay surface, the plain pit hearth dwelling, the rim perforation decorated pottery, the round attached-rim vessel, etc. in the Stage Ⅴ-2 (early to late 3rd century BC), and lastly the small-sized plain pit hearth, the hearth-free dwelling, the rim perforation decorated pottery, the round attached-rim vessel, etc. in the Stage Ⅵ(late 3rd century BC to mid 2nd century BC). The dwelling cluster of Jungdo-dong reached its peak in the Stage Ⅳ-2, which was clearly evident from the fact that the dwelling cluster in the Stage occupied 47% of the total area of Jungdodong.
 The small-sized dwelling cluster in the Stage I had the smallest proportion, which was associated with the dwelling left over from the seasonal and temporary economic activities of the raised band decoration pottery group.

金海 金官加耶 勢力의 鐵斧流通網 硏究

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the iron production and distribution network of Gimhae Geumgwan Gaya forces. The distribution network estimation path and change pattern were identified through the study of the network of the three iron types (plate, casting, forging) used as practical tools among the exca- vated iron parts in Gimhae, and it is divided into four stages. Stage I was from the late 1st century B.C. to the mid 2nd century A.D., and through exchanges with political groups in the Midwest and eastern Yeongnam, iron parts were processed and distributed through danya processes in small villages in Haebancheon Stream and Jomangang River.
 Stage II is in the late 2nd to late 3rd centuries, and Yeancheon Stream and Hwapocheon groups use the Sobaeksan Mountain transportation route to serve as trade routes between the midwest and the southeast of Yeongnam, and indirect exchanges between Gimhae and Honam forces are prevalent. Stage III is from the first half of the 4th century to the early 5th century, and a redistribution network is formed in the Haesa-ri area through smelting and refining processes → iron storage in the lower part of the Joman River, and the consumer group → Bonghwang earthen fortification. In the Ⅳ stage, Yeorae-ri steel base was established in the 5th centu- ry, a local market is formed around a charcoal kiln, merges with the Jomanogang River through Bonghwang earthen fortification. therefore, Geumgwan Gaya seems to have embraced the a Royal gift system through the distribution of powerful products such as steel technology and Jin gold belt based on a kind of long-distance trade for Hansung Baekje with trading Iron ax. In other words, it is transformed into an intermediate base for trade with the Nakdonggang River, Baekje, the eastern forces of Honam, and Japan by establishing and control- ling the solidarity and distribution network with small and medium-sized towns and villages through Cylinder bronzeware. In the 5th century, as the value of Iron ax declined and the function of Bonghwangtoseong Fortress as an intermediate point due to the supply and demand of the surrounding powers, foreign trade stagnated, but the local market distribution network consisting of consumption sites was maintained.

Creditor fructus percepit, Sul pegno con patto anticretico

Summary Creditor fructus percepit, On pledge with a pactum antichreticum. – May the pledgee take the benefits of the res? Pledge did not allow it, there would have been theft (furtum usus). In fact, the thing given as pledge was excluded from any economic use. However, Roman law attests an agreement called ἀντίχρησις, which allowed the creditor to have the fruits of the res, under some conditions. Among the jurists only Marcianus uses this Greek term (in D.13,7,33 and D.20,1,11,1). In this paper, I wish to demonstrate that the antichresis has become part of Roman legal thought. The legal sources attest a late appearance of the antichresis (very late 2nd and early 3rd century AD), but some Severian constitutions suggest that it may already have been known in practice. The Greek word indicated its foreign origin, but Roman jurists called it simply pignus.

Radiocarbon dating of lime plaster from a Roman period cistern in ancient Gerasa, Jerash in Jordan

Ancient Gerasa (Jerash, since the Islamic period) is a city with a rich archaeological heritage from prehistory onwards, with the periods from Roman times into the Early Islamic period best attested. A Danish-German team has been working in the Northwest Quarter of the city since 2011. Among the findings was a Roman period monumental cistern that was intentionally filled in, at one point in time. The complexity of the archaeology raised chronological questions regarding the construction, destruction and subsequent backfilling of the cistern. This study contributed to answer these questions by radiocarbon dating lime plaster excavated from the cistern, and comparing the results with charcoal radiocarbon dates from other studies. Radiocarbon dating of plaster and mortar in Jerash is challenging because of contamination of geological carbonates from the local limestone geology. Quoting previous mortar dating studies, this study utilized sample characterization by alkalinity screening, petrography, SEM-EDS, and sample pre-treatment and preparation by wet sieving, sedimentation and stepwise injection. The plaster dates argued for the construction of the cistern being in the last half of the 1st century BCE to the middle of the 1st century CE. A few samples had later mortar dates, which argued for the filling event of the cistern taking place sometime in the late 3rd century CE or later.

The Coordination of Chronology in Archaeology on the Period of the Three Kingdoms through the Comparison of Harnesses between Korea and China

삼국시대 동아시아 마구는 전체적인 변화 발전의 틀에서 많은 공통속성이 확인되어 표준연대자료의 확보에유효하다. 양진-16국시대의 마구를 검토하여 편년의 기준자료를 확보하고 이를 삼국시대 마구와 비교하여 삼국시대 고고학 편년 조율을 시도하였다. 동오·서진 마구에서 등자의 발명은 마구 역사에서 획을 긋는 사건이었으며, 등자와 고안교 안장의 조합은 1인기승의 보편화를 의미한다. 동진대에는 쌍등과 고안교 안장의 조합으로 개마중갑기병이 확산하는 틀이 마련되었고, 1인 기승 마장 체제를 확립하였다. 16국 시기 삼연 마구는 전통적 속성, 중원적 속성 및 중원 마구가 삼연 문화 체제 내에서 변용된 속성으로 나눌 수 있는데, 중원을 원향으로 하는 중원적 속성과 변용적 속성이 대부분이다. 금동제 등자, 쌍봉문과 승문을시문한 행엽과 안장 장식 및 판비는 중원을 원향으로 하는 마구 속성이다. 삼연 마구의 경우 삼국시대 등자의 시원인 금속판으로 보강한 목심 등자를 비롯하여 지판과 장식판을 덧댄 구조의 판비와 행엽은 상한이 370년대로편년된다. 중원지역에서 철제 개마중갑기병은 16국 시기에 본격화하였다. 마주의 비교에서 고구려와 가야는 각각 4세기 중엽과 4세기 말에 전연의 것을 받아들였지만, 고구려는 4세기 말에 중원의 것도 수용하여 고구려 독자의 양식을 완성하였다. 가야와 신라는 광개토왕 경자년 남정을 계기로 마갑과 마주 조합이 완비된 개마중갑기병 체제를 갖추었다. 양진-16국시대 마구와 삼국시대 마구를 비교한 결과, 권운문와당의 간지 기년을 4세기 전반으로 한 고구려 고고학 편년, 가락동 2호분의 조영 시점을 3세기 후반으로 하는 백제 고고학 편년, 황남대총 남분을 내물왕 무덤으로 비정한 신라 고고학 편년을 당해 시기 한·중 마구에 적용하면 동아시아 고대 마구의 역사는 물론 세계 마구의역사도 다시 써야 한다. 그렇지만 권운문와당 간지 기년을 4세기 후반, 가락동 2호분을 4세기 말, 황남대총 남분을 눌지왕 무덤으로 하는 편년을 양진-16국시대 중국 마구 편년에 적용하면 괴리가 거의 없다.The harness, which was used in East Asia during the period of the Three Kingdoms, has been confirmed to have many common attributes in terms of the overall framework of changes and developments, showing that it is valid for obtaining data on standard chronology. It has obtained reference data for chronology by reviewing the harnesses of East and West Jin Dynasty-16Guo Dynasty for comparison with those of the period of the Three Kingdoms, which led to an attempt to coordinate chronology in archaeology on the period of the Three Kingdoms. The invention of stirrups in the East Wu·West Jin harness was an epoch-making event in the harness history, and the combination of stirrups and high saddles means the generalization of single-person horse riding. The framework for the spread of the heavy cavalry was established by a combination of the double-stirrups and high saddles in East Jin, resulting in establishing the system of single-person horse riding. The attributes of SanYan harness of 16Guo Dynasty are divided into a traditional attribute, a Chinese Zhongyuan-based attribute, and a transformational attribute of the Chinese Zhongyuan harness transformed within the system of SanYan culture, but in most cases, the Chinese Zhongyuan-based attribute according to the Chinese Zhongyuan region and the transformational attribute apply. gilt-bronze stirrups, Harness pendants decorated with two phoenixes, etc., saddle ornaments, horse bits are the representative examples of harness attributes in the Chinese Zhongyuan region. In the case of the SanYan harness, all of the horse bits and harness pendants structuralized by plates and ornamental plates, including wooden stirrups reinforced by the metal place, the origin of stirrups during the period of the Three Kingdoms, are known to be in the 370s as terminus post quem. In the Chinese Zhongyuan region, heavy cavalry began in earnest in the 16Guo Dynasty. The comparison of horse helmets have shown that Goguryeo and Gaya accepted the ways of QianYan in the mid-4th century and late 4th century, respectively, but Goguryeo completed its own style by accepting those of the Chinese Zhongyuan region in the late 4th century. Gaya and Silla established a system of heavy cavalry with a complete combination of horse armors and helmets with Goguryeo’s southward conquest as a momentum. The results of comparing the harness of East and West Jin-Dynasty-16Guo Dynasty with that of the Three Kingdoms have suggested that applying chronology on the Goguryeo archaeology in which the GanJi (干支) script of cloud-pattern the roof-end tiles was from the first half of the 4th century, chronology on the Baekje archaeology in which the construction period of Garakdong Tomb No.2 were from the late 3rd century, and chronology on the Silla archaeology in which Hwangnamdaechong nambun was designated as the tomb of King Namul to the harnesses of Korea and China in those days, not only the history of ancient harnesses in East Asia, but also that of harnesses in the world should be written. But, applying chronology on the GanJi (干支) script of cloud-pattern the roof-end tiles from the late 4th century, on Garak-dong Tomb No.2 from the end of the 4th century, and on Hwangnamdaechong nambun designated as the tomb of King Nulji to chronology on the Chinese harness in East and West Jin Dynasty-16Guo Dynasty, there is almost no gap among them.

The Revival of Interest in Representing Plays of Menander in the Late 2nd and Early 3rd Centuries AD: A Historical and Art-Historical Phenomenon

An important revival in representing plays of Menander in private homes, in the form of both mosaics and frescoes, occurred primarily in the eastern part of the Roman empire in the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries AD, with a limited echo felt in the west. The present article tries to explain why and how this artistic phenomenon took place, and a review of the relevant works of art and their chronology is presented in this interpretation. The discussion also refers to the frequent depiction of theater masks in well-to-do households, and the related custom of presenting theatrical entertainment at the banquet or “dinner theater.” Also significant for our purpose are the continued vitality of theater festivals throughout the Greek-speaking provinces during the first half of the 3rd century, and the retrospective attitude of the Second Sophistic, with its high esteem for classical drama of the past. This outlook was focused on Athens, and it had great admiration for the plays of Menander and Euripides. One additional feature influencing the artistic renewal in question is the high value placed on Menander’s plays as models of literary expression in the curriculum of schools, especially for training students in rhetoric and declamation. Collectively, all of the factors mentioned above contributed to the Menander revival in the visual arts during the period specified.

Unusual Roman Iron Age burials on the Links of Pierowall, Westray, Orkney

Antiquarian accounts and surviving finds allow two Iron Age cist-burials found in the late 18th century on the Links of Pierowall on Westray, Orkney, to be reconstructed, although no details of the bodies survive (but both were most probably inhumations); the unusual finds have not previously received full attention. One burial contained a polished stone disc, used as a palette for grinding some valued substance, probably cosmetic, medical or narcotic. A review of the type emphasises its particular prevalence in northern Scotland, and places it within the wider context of an increase in artefacts linked to personal appearance and behaviour in the Roman Iron Age. The other burial contained a well-known Roman glass cup and a hitherto ignored ‘metal spoon’ which can reasonably be identified as a Roman import as well, plausibly of silver. Such spoons are rare import goods, known from rich burials beyond the frontier on continental Europe in the late 2nd and 3rd century AD. This suggests that the Roman world adopted similar approaches to its varied neighbours in terms of the goods offered in (most likely) political or diplomatic connections.

Prophesying the Demise of Egyptian Religion in Late Antiquity: The Perfect Discourse and Antoninus in Canopus

Abstract When the demise of traditional Egyptian religion took place is much debated. Some scholars have portrayed vibrant cults continuing well beyond the 4th century, embattled by Christianity, whereas others see a marked decline in the late 2nd and early 3rd century, leaving a blank slate for Christianity in the fourth century. The present contribution interprets the apocalyptic prophecy of Hermes Trismegistus in the Perfect Discourse to reflect a priestly insider’s perspective of the decline in temple-cult in the early 3rd century, and its projected catastrophic consequences for Egypt and indeed the cosmic order. Yet, despite the general neglect of temple-cult and literacy in the Egyptian priestly scripts, certain temples remained in use. The second part of the article is devoted to the survival and apparent rejuvenation of the temple of Osiris/Serapis in Canopus, in the second half of the 4th century. This case shows that at this late date there were still self-consciously traditionalist devotees of Egyptian gods, though our sources do not permit us to see to what degree their temple-cult corresponded to the old “standard model.” The temple’s alliance with the non-Egyptian Neoplatonist Antoninus suggests that the image of Egypt as the temple of the world is now championed in the language of Hellenism, and Antoninus updates the now nearly two-centuries-old prophecy of Hermes Trismegistus to predict the fall of the Serapis temples in Alexandria and Canopus after his death. Both the Perfect Discourse and Antoninus are testimonies of a literate elite that saw the great temples as the essence of Egyptian religion, and their demise as the end of Egypt and the world.

ابن الحَجَّامِ القيرواني المالکي وأثره في الحياة العلمية بإفريقية والأندلس منذ أواخر القرن الثالث حتى منتصف القرن الرابع الهجريين

کان الفقيه عبد الله بن مسرور القيرواني المعروف بابن الحجام (ت346ه/958م)، من شيوخ المالکية الثقات الذين نقل عنهم العلم. وقد تتلمذ عليه کثير من طلاب العلم القيروانيين والأندلسيين، فسمعوا منه مصنفاته العلمية، وکتب الفقه المالکي، ومصنفات ابن سنجر الجرجاني نزيل مصر، وهى مفقودة، برواية شيخه عيسى بن مسکين، ثم حدثوا بها تلاميذهم بنواحيهم فذاعت هناک. ومع ذلک کان ابن الحجام من العلماء الذين لم ينصفهم التاريخ، فلم ينل قدره من الاهتمام الذي يتناسب وقيمته العلمية. وتستهدف الدراسة إبراز ملامح دوره في الحياة العلمية بإفريقية والأندلس، وأثره في تشکيل ثقافة تلاميذه منذ أواخر القرن الثالث حتى قرابة منتصف القرن الرابع الهجريين، مما أهل بعضهم ليصبحوا من أبرز شيوخ الفقه والحديث ببلادهم. وتستهدف الدراسة أيضا إبراز موقف ابن الحجام المعارض للمد الشيعي الفاطمي بإفريقية وتأثر تلاميذه القيروانيين بذلک، وميله نحو الزهد واقتداء تلاميذه القيروانيين والأندلسيين به. The jurist Abdullah ibn Masror al-Kairouani, known as Ibn al-Hajjam (T346Ah/958 AD), was one of the reliable Maliki sheikhs who were transferred from the flag, and many students of the Kairouan and Andalusian sciences studied it. They heard from him his scientific works, the books of Maliki jurisprudence, and the works of Ibn Sinjar al-Gurgani, the guest of Egypt, which is missing, in the novel of his sheikh Isa ibn Miskine, and then they talked to their disciples in their areas, and they went there. Nevertheless, Ibn al-Hajjam was one of the scholars who had not been distinguished by history, and he did not receive the attention commensurate with its scientific value. The study aims to highlight the features of his role in the scientific life of Africa and Andalusia, and its impact on the formation of the culture of his disciples from the late 3rd century until the middle of the fourth century Hijri, which qualified some of them to become the most prominent elders of jurisprudence and hadith in their country. The study also aims to highlight ibn al-Hajjam's position opposed to the Fatimid Shiite tide in Africa, influenced by his Kairouan disciples, and his propensity for asceticism and the example of his Kairouan and Andalusian disciples

The Alexanders of Assos and Phokaia

There has been considerable uncertainty in the attribution of Alexanders to Assos and Phokaia because both cities used a griffin as their civic badge. This article attempts to resolve these uncertainties by providing a die study of the Alexanders attributed to Assos and Phokaia and combining the results of this study with the available hoard evidence. This produces a new picture of the minting activity of Assos and Phokaia in the late 3rd and early 2nd century which raises questions about how the production of these high-value series fits into the broader context of the Attalid kingdom.

БИОАРХЕОЛОГИЯ КОЧЕВНИКОВ ВТОРОЙ ПОЛОВИНЫ III — IV В. Н. Э. (на примере анализа нижневолжских и нижнедонских погребений)

The paper presents a comparative analysis of anthropological materials originating from the nomadic burials of the Lower Volga and Lower Don regions of the late 3rd and 4th century AD. The standard assessment program of paleopathological conditions developed by A. P. Buzhilova was applied in the course of examination of the anthropological material. The authors conducted the analysis using the methods of multivariate statistics in order to assess the degree of variability. The results obtained were correlated with the data of archaeology and paleoecology. The studied sample from the burial grounds of the Lower Volga region included 22 individuals; the archaeological complex of the Lower Don is presented by bone remains of 9 individuals. The study has shown that both series for the most part are close to each other as regards to pathological conditions, stress markers as well as gender and age indicators. Statistically significant differences were revealed only for 4 characteristics: caries, enamel chips, pathological tooth wear and the “orange peel” type vascular reaction. On the one hand, variability may be a consequence of the objective small number of the series, on the other, might reflect differences in lifestyle, diets and origin of the compared groups. For instance, the dominance of agricultural foods in the Alans-Tanaites’ diet brings them closer to the sedentary population of the Kuban and Lower Don. The specific deviations revealed in the study of dentoalveolar system in the Lower Don group may be the result of close interaction with agricultural centers, or may stem from the North Caucasus regional migrations.

Review of studies of the Noin-Ula archaeological site (Northern Mongolia)

In the article, the author examines and analyzes in detail the publications devoted to the study of the archaeological site Noin-Ula, located in the North of Mongolia. With the discovery of this burial ground began archaeology of the Xiongnu, one of the ancient peoples who roamed throughout Central Asia from late 3rd century BC to late 1st century AD. Fragments of ancient Chinese and Parthian fabrics, embroidery, lacquered, bronze, iron and other items have been preserved in the elite mounds of Noin-Ula. The article summarizes the results of almost a century of study of the archaeological site, provides the most complete bibliography. В статье автор подробно рассматривает и анализирует публикации, посвященные изучению археологического памятника Ноин-Ула, расположенного на севере Монголии. С открытия этого могильника началась археология хунну, одного из древних народов, кочевавших на территории Центральной Азии с конца III в. до н. э. и до конца I в. н. э. В элитных курганах Ноин-Улы сохранились фрагменты древних китайских и парфянских тканей, вышивок, лакированных, бронзовых, железных и других изделий. В статье подводятся итоги почти столетнего изучения археологического памятника, приведена наиболее полная библиография.

Appearance and social meaning of Egg shaped jar with two lugs buried in the Wooden chamber Tomb of the Yeongnam Province

This writing paid attention and made an approach to appearance and social meaning of Egg shaped jar with two lugs buried in the wooden chamber tomb of Yeongnam Province. As a result, according to the present data, the egg shaped jar was intensively excavated in the Gyeongju and Ulsan area and became prevalent around the Gyeongju area. If chronology of the egg shaped jar is applied to existing research results, it appears in the mid-3rd century AD and continues until the early 4th century. With respect to appearance of the egg shaped jar in each area, it first appeared in Gyeongju and Daegu area in the middle of 3rd century AD and especially, Gyeongju area continued its appearance until the early 4th century AD and has the largest amount of excavated artifacts. Gyeongju is the center of the appearance. And, it appeared in the Ulsan area in the late 3rd century AD and was existed until the early 4th century with second largest amount of excavated artifacts. On the other hand, it contrasts that burial of the egg shaped jar was confirmed with a very small quantity in the pohang, Daegu area. The social meanings according to appearance of the egg shaped jar and Gyeongju wooden chamber tomb are interpreted as follows. In other words, each of the towns of Saroguk was usually composed of plural powers rather than a single power and therefore, social unity was absolutely necessary to build them into a political system. Because of the political situation, it seems that Saroguk focused on rituals. Because the rituals eventually justify social hierarchy or contain political momentum and also mean innovation and change, the combination of powers through religious ritual rather than forced merger is more reasonable and economical to lead social hierarchy to a fair agreement. Especially archeological phenomenon, it’s appeared in the center of innovation and change in the middle of the 3rd century AD those’re Egg shaped jar with two lugs, Egg shaped jar with short neck, Chafing dish shaped earthenware, and Gyeongju wooden chamber tomb. In addition, the distribution range of Egg shaped jar with two lugs, Egg shaped jar with short neck, and Chafing dish shaped earthenware as well as Gyeongju wooden chamber tomb was interpreted as the data that can access to the relation with the Saroguk.