Late 19th Century Research Articles

A Roman bath with broken windows in Asine, Argolis. The result of repeated earthquakes?

A substantial assemblage of Roman window glass—consisting primarily of “cast”, matt/glossy examples, but also including cylinderblown, double-glossy window glass—was discovered during the 1926 excavations of a Late Roman bath in Asine, Argolis, the Peloponnese, Greece. It is clear that this material emanates from damage done to the building, and the question of whether this had human or natural causes is discussed in this paper: was it the “barbarian” invasion of the Visigoth king Alaric in the late 4th century AD that led to the windows being broken? Or, was the damage caused by the earthquakes known to have hit the Eastern Mediterranean area in Late Antiquity? Traces of destruction typical of earthquakes were found in the bath building, and the destruction occurred in a period known for its high seismic activity: the so-called Early Byzantine Tectonic Paroxysm, which led to the conclusion that the bath was hit by at least one, possibly several, earthquakes, causing the windows to shatter and fall out of their frames. Some of the glass sherds were in all probability hidden under dust and debris and were never recovered despite the fact that glass was extensively recycled at the time.

Analysis of the Application of Game Theory from Multiple Aspects: Economics, Business, and Education

In the late 20th century and early 21st century, there has been extensive literature published regarding proposals of the utilization of game theory from different academic aspects, which are tedious and unnecessary work for scholars who only wish to simply learn about some of the applications of game theory. This paper summarizes and organizes a few examples of the applications of game theory using prominent existing literature from three aspects: business, economics, and education, hoping to spark scholars’ interests and provide a broad understanding for readers as to when and how game theory may be used. When applying game theory to a real-world issue in business, economics, or education, the development and design of a “game” with certain selected constraints and variables is used to replicate the real-world model using mathematical languages. Depending on the real-world conflict these models are portraying, they might be novel concepts or variations of already-existing models. The summarization of some applications of game theory may spark interest for scholars interested in the various fields explored such as business management, economics, and optimization and quickly understand current progress in the area of game theory.

The introduction of the concept of anxiety into China: a thematic historical study

IntroductionThis article presents a thematic historical study on the introduction of “anxiety” to modern China. Based on seminal research conducted previously by European scholars on histories of psychological and psychiatric concepts, this article reviews the itinerary of “anxiety” to China by using multiple types of textual evidence. Alongside a detailed description of how “anxiety” was translated and introduced, a comparison between the notions of “anxiety” in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Western psychoanalytic approaches was made. The processes of how “depression” and “anxiety” were introduced to China were also compared.Materials and methodsThree types of textual evidence were meticulously analyzed. First, lexicographical works published since the 19th century were examined to trace the initial introduction and observe the standardized translation of “anxiety” in Chinese. Second, newspaper and periodical articles were analyzed to understand how knowledge of “anxiety” was communicated to the general public. Third, the evolution of psychological and psychiatric terminologies was observed through medical books.ResultsIt was found that “anxiety” was initially translated into various Chinese terms, with “jiaolyu” eventually emerging as the standardized term after 1949. The textual evidence showed that “anxiety” began to be acknowledged as a disease concept in the early 20th century, though it was not formally recognized as a diagnostic category until the late 20th century. This article also highlights the differences between the Western psychoanalytic view on anxiety and the Chinese folk conception of it.Discussion and conclusionsIt was observed that the introduction processes of depression and anxiety to China were similar, though their conceptual histories in the West showed much difference. The fading of neurasthenia marked a new era of psychiatric development in China, characterized by an enhanced specificity in the classification of mental disorders, which was never observed in the discourse about “xin feng,” a corresponding TCM notion of “anxiety.” The article also underscores the need for further exploration of corresponding TCM concepts of “anxiety” and the assimilation of Western psychiatric concepts in China.

Challenges of Teacher Involvement in School Management in China

The philosophy of “participatory management” has garnered attention in a wide range of sectors. In China, research on teacher involvement in school management began in the late 20th century. The purpose of this article is to discuss the significance of teacher involvement in school management and summarize its challenges and causes in China on the basis of the existing literature, with the view to providing valuable insights for the advancement of school governance and the improvement of the quality of education in this country.

Heritage clay brick characterization and assessment with compatible contemporary bricks for retrofitting of heritage monuments

Various mughal architecture clay brick masonry monuments were built in the Punjab state of northern India from the late 14th to late 19th centuries. Nanakshahi monuments (era of 1st Sikh Guru-Guru Nanak Dev Ji) are gigantic clay brick masonry structures constructed of lime and lime surkhi mortar (a powdered form of red burnt clay brick). Currently, this study is focused on identifying a suitable material for repairing and strengthening heritage clay brick monuments. Using the mineralogical composition of heritage Nanakshahi clay bricks (NSCB), the study compares them with contemporary clay bricks (CCB) from the same region, and then compares them to newly prepared clay bricks (NPCB), which have similar composition and dimensions to NSCB. The X-ray fluorescence confirms that the NSCB samples of southeast Punjab have an elemental composition consisting of filler SiO2 and binding elements like Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, K2O and MgO. The average density of ancient NSCB and CCB has been found to be similar; the ancient NSCB has a lower water absorption rate and porosity in contrast to the present-day clay bricks. The Initial rate of absorption of an ancient NSCB is quite higher. In comparison to the heritage NSCB, the CCB's compressive strength value is lower and uniaxial compression strength of newly prepared clay bricks (NPCB) of similar mineralogical composition and dimensions is comparable to that of the heritage NSCB from Punjab districts. The significance of the study is to suggest a compatible material for strengthening of heritage clay brick monuments of northern India.

An epidemiological update on infective endocarditis: a two-decade retrospective longitudinal analysis

Abstract Background Infective endocarditis (IE) is a rare yet serious condition affecting the heart valves and the endocardium. Despite advances in management, IE's incidence is on the rise, maintaining a mortality rate similar to that of the late 20th century. Notably, there has been a notable shift in the risk-factor profile, transitioning from traditional factors such as rheumatic heart disease and poor dental health to more iatrogenic causes such as prosthetic heart valves, cardiac devices, foreign body implants, haemodialysis, and immunosuppression. This shift impacts microbiological and imaging diagnosis. Purpose While IE has been extensively studied in the past, the evolving landscape prompts an epidemiological re-evaluation of vulnerable patient populations and the challenges in current diagnostic parameters. Our primary objective is to examine the trends in microbiological and imaging diagnostics over two decades and to compare them across native valve endocarditis (NVE), prosthetic valve endocarditis (PVE), and cardiac implantable electronic device-related IE (CIED-IE). Methods We conducted a retrospective analysis of longitudinal data encompassing 912 patients admitted with either a possible or definite IE diagnosis between 2001 and 2023. Results The incidence of IE increased over the study duration (p<0.01) with octogenarians most affected (21%). Iatrogenic risk factors were associated with nearly two-thirds (63%) of patients diagnosed with IE, while traditional risk factors were evident in almost one-eighth (13%). Blood culture-negative endocarditis increased over the study duration (81% versus73%, p<0.01) and Staphylococcus aureus (29%, p<0.01) became the dominant pathogen over Viridans Streptococcus (14%, p=0.001). Imaging with transthoracic (56% in 2004 versus 75% in 2023) and transoesophageal echocardiography (57% in 2004 versus 79% in 2023) had an increasing contribution in the diagnosis of IE over the two decades. The subgroup analysis found PVE and CIED-IE were more likely to have negative blood cultures (OR=3.7, CI [1.2-6.8] & OR=4.9, CI [1.3-8]) compared to NVE (OR=0.04, CI [0.02-0.8]). PVE and CIED-IE were more likely to have inconclusive imaging (OR=3.7, CI [1.2-6.6] & OR=2.2, CI [0.07-7.8]) compared to NVE (OR=0.63, CI [0.3-3.2]). Complications of stroke were higher in PVE (OR=3.5, CI [0.89-10]) compared to NVE which also had a lower stroke rate (OR=.16, CI [.04-.73]). PVE had more valvular insufficiency (OR=2.1, CI [0.6-4]) compared to NVE (OR=1.2, CI [0.9-6]). The 12-month mortality was no different across the entities (OR=0.3, CI [0.5-7.7] & OR=.49, CI [0.14-1.8] & OR=0.85, CI [0.3-2.4]). Conclusion Our study underscores the evolving nature of IE, now predominantly a healthcare-related disease. Diagnostic challenges persist due to the heterogeneity of the disease, with the emergence of distinct entities such as PVE and CIED-IE.Graphs: Blood culture & echocardiographyForest plot: NVE vs PVE vs CIED-IE

Population History and Anthropometric Variation of West Coast Irish Islands.

Previous research using anthropometric data from the west coast of Ireland in the late 19th century showed that two island populations, the Aran Islands and Inishbofin, were phenotypically divergent from the mainland and more similar to England, a pattern consistent with historical evidence for English admixture. The present study extends these analyses by including data from two other island populations in the region that do not have a history of English admixture. Data were taken from published sources for six west coast Irish populations measured in the 1890s: two mainland groups (Connemara and Erris) and four island populations (the Aran Islands, Clare Island, Inishbofin, and the Inishkea Islands). The anthropometric data consist of 13 measures on 317 males. Mahalanobis distances among the six populations were derived as well as distances to a mean based on English anthropometric data. The two island populations with a history of likely English admixture following the garrisoning of English soldiers in previous centuries were the most divergent from the Irish mainland and most similar to the English mean. The other two island populations (Clare Island and the Inishkea Islands) did not have a history of English admixture and were most similar to the Irish mainland. The different patterns of anthropometric similarity among the four island populations show different population histories and support earlier studies suggesting differential English admixture as a factor in the population structure of the region.

Geology, Archaeology, and Historical Studies of the Late 16th Century Plinian Eruption of Raung Volcano: A Potential Case for Disaster Geotourism in Ijen UNESCO Global Geopark, East Java, Indonesia

The enigmatic major eruption in the late 16th century, believed to have originated from Raung, the most active stratovolcano in the Ijen UNESCO Global Geopark in East Java, Indonesia, has ignited significant debate among researchers and historians due to its profound impact on the region. This research aims to substantiate Raung as the likely source of the major eruption by integrating geological, archaeological, and historical data. This study synthesizes current findings and explores ongoing debates surrounding historical volcanic activities. Eruption parameters suggest that the late 16th century eruption exhibited a Plinian type, characterized by an explosive eruption column reaching the stratosphere, widespread pumiceous tephra fallout, and pyroclastic density current (PDC). Stratigraphic succession reveals that the eruption occurred in five phases, with deposits from 10 eruptive units. These deposits are mainly concentrated on the northwestern flank of Raung. Archaeological findings, historical records, and local legends converge to pinpoint the occurrence of this catastrophic event in the late 16th century. These diverse sources estimate that the eruption resulted in approximately 10,000 casualties, marking it as one of the most significant volcanic disasters in the past 500 years. The implications of this eruption extend beyond historical documentation, providing a critical case study for advancing disaster mitigation strategies through geotourism in the geopark area. Moreover, the eruption record outcrops identified in this study can be proposed as potential new geosites within the Ijen UNESCO Global Geopark, enhancing its educational and touristic value. We propose the Jebung Kidul, Alas Sumur, and Batu Sappar sites as potential disaster-based geosites, considering that these sites record the eruption process and preserve archaeological structures. This addition would not only commemorate the historical event but also promote awareness and preparedness for future volcanic activities in the region.

Consciousness Under the Spotlight: The Problem of Measuring Subjective Experience.

The study of consciousness is considered by many one of the most difficult contemporary scientific endeavors and confronts several methodological and theoretical challenges. A central issue that makes the study of consciousness so challenging is that, while the rest of science is concerned with problems that can be verified from a "third person" view (i.e., objectively), the study of consciousness deals with the phenomenon of subjective experience, only accessible from a "first person" view. In the present article, we review early (starting during the late 19th century) and later efforts on measuring consciousness and its absence, focusing on the two main approaches used by researchers within the field: objective (i.e., performance based) and subjective (i.e., report based) measures of awareness. In addition, we compare the advantages and disadvantages of both types of awareness measures, evaluate them according to different methodological considerations, and discuss, among other issues, the possibility of comparing them by transforming them to a common sensitivity measure (d'). Finally, we explore several new approaches-such as Bayesian models to support the absence of awareness or new machine-learning based decoding models-as well as future challenges-such as measuring the qualia, the qualitative contents of awareness-in consciousness research.

“Initial-a-final”, Luwian low vowels, and language contact in the Syro-Anatolian world

Abstract The Anatolian hieroglyphic inventory features two phonetic signs conventionally translated as “a”: 〈a〉 = L. 450 and 〈a〉 = L. 19. Their distribution has eluded explanation due to the complicated conventions governing the use of the 〈a〉 sign, which can be placed at the end of a word (“initial-a-final”), replaced with 〈a〉 (“a-substitution”), or deleted (“a-deletion”). Some words also regularly change between 〈a〉 and 〈a〉 within their paradigm. Based on a more refined understanding of these conventions, which vary by period and location, and comparison with data from the closely related Lycian language and Luwian names in Greek transmission, it will be suggested that 〈a〉 and 〈a〉 corresponded to the low vowels /a/ and /ɑ/ respectively. It will be argued that distinction between the two vowels in Luwian ultimately arose from the Proto-Anatolian contrast between the short and long non-high vowels, but also in some instances from the Luwic umlaut (mostly anticipatory backing of /a/ to /ɑ/). New evidence is also put forth that the vowel system of some dialects of Late Luwian underwent a change due to contact with Semitic languages. This resulted in an orthographic reform beginning in the late 9th century BC, which has practical implications for the dating of certain inscriptions.

Uncovering the Embryonic Origins of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe degenerative muscle disease caused by mutations in the DMD gene, which encodes dystrophin. Despite its initial description in the late 19th century by French neurologist Guillaume Duchenne de Boulogne, and identification of causal DMD genetic mutations in the 1980s, therapeutics remain challenging. The current standard of care is corticosteroid treatment, which delays the progression of muscle dysfunction but is associated with significant adverse effects. Emerging therapeutic approaches, including AAV-mediated gene transfer, CRISPR gene editing, and small molecule interventions, are under development but face considerable obstacles. Although DMD is viewed as a progressive muscle disease, muscle damage and abnormal molecular signatures are already evident during fetal myogenesis. This early onset of pathology suggests that the limited success of current therapies may partly be due to their administration after aberrant embryonic myogenesis has occurred in the absence of dystrophin. Consequently, identifying optimal therapeutic strategies and intervention windows for DMD may depend on a better understanding of the earliest DMD disease mechanisms. As newer techniques are applied, the field is gaining increasingly detailed insights into the early muscle developmental abnormalities in DMD. A comprehensive understanding of the initial events in DMD pathogenesis and progression will facilitate the generation and testing of effective therapeutic interventions.

Демографічні втрати балканських країн унаслідок воєн

Looking at the current state in which Ukraine found itself due to the Russian-Ukrainian war, many questions arise regarding the possibility of estimating demographic losses resulting from this war. A study of the demographic losses of the Western Balkan countries during the most recent wars in this region is a useful preparation for approbation of a methodological basis for future calculations. Therefore, it is currently relevant to study the specifics of the use of general methodological approaches for determining losses under the conditions of a specific social disaster; to assess the demographic losses of the republics of the former Yugoslavia resulting from the Balkan wars, taking into account the specifics of the course of the crisis and the available information base; to determine the possibility of applying the used approaches to the assessment of demographic losses resulting from the Russian-Ukrainian war. The purpose of the article is an attempt to estimate the demographic losses of the republics of the former Yugoslavia resulting from the Balkan wars. The tasks are the analysis of available data and research on demographic losses and obtaining authors’ own assessment of them. The scientific novelty is the generalized information from various sources and the study of the specifics of its formation, the authors’ assessment of the excess mortality and the birth deficit in some republics of the former Yugoslavia. For the purposes of the analysis, the authors provided a chronology of events in the Western Balkans of the late 20th and early 21st centuries and identified sources of information on losses for each former Yugoslav republic. However, despite the fact that many sources can be found in open access, they differ in the diversity of data, calculation methodology, and completeness of presentation. The article presents generalized information on the number of dead as a result of military conflicts based on several analytical sites. The authors defined two approaches, according to which demographic losses can be calculated: the first is the assessment of direct and indirect losses; the second is the use of the demographic balance equation, when excess mortality and birth deficit are estimated. In all the resources cited in the article, the determination of losses is carried out according to the first approach, the authors of the article made an attempt to estimate demographic losses according to the second approach. Using this approach, based on Eurostat data, it was possible to determine losses for only three countries: Serbia, Slovenia, and Croatia. For two regions, Eurostat does not provide demographic data for the years of active military operations: for Bosnia and Herzegovina for 1992—1995, for Kosovo for 1998—2001. In Macedonia, the number of casualties was small, which makes it impractical to build a hypothetical model, while Montenegro managed to avoid war altogether. So, both approaches have one common problem — the lack of a reliable information base. However, differences in loss estimates between the two approaches are natural due to the use of different methodological tools. Nevertheless, the magnitude and causes of large differences require additional research. It should be noted that there are quite a lot of estimates of direct losses, but at the time of the study, the authors were not aware of attempts to estimate excess mortality in individual republics of the former Yugoslavia. The obtained estimates require critical analysis and, if necessary, adjustments. The direction is the reconstruction (or clarification) of demographic dynamics (especially for Bosnia and Herzegovina) taking into account long-term demographic trends.

Were the tables of Ibn Isḥāq al-Tūnisī known in Paris c.1300?

Two Latin sources from the years around 1300 (John of Sicily’s commentary on the canons to the Toledan tables and a parchment slip documenting the astronomical activities and observations of Alard of Diest) contain brief references suggesting that Parisian scholars of this period had access to a set of astronomical tables for Tunis known as tabulae Benesac. According to the argument developed in this article, the tables in question probably corresponded to a Maghribī zīj originally created by Ibn Isḥāq al-Tūnisī in c.1222. The article goes on to discuss the possible channels of transmission that could have brought these tables to Paris as well as the potential implications of this finding for the history of Latin astronomy in the late 13th and early 14th century. Attention is also drawn to the presence of eclipse-related material from the Muqtabas zīj by Ibn al-Kammād in a Northern French manuscript of the second half of the 13th century, which was independently translated from the Arabic and accordingly does not derive from the well-known translation by John of Dumpno (Palermo, 1260).

Building Identities: Ancient Legacies and Modern Visions in Architecture of the Americas

Review of Antes de America: Fuentes originarias en la cultura moderna, an exhibition at the at Fundación Juan March, Madrid, Spain, 6 October 2023–10 March 2024, curated by Manuel Fontán del Junco, María Toledo Gutiérrez, and Rodrigo Gutiérrez Viñuales. This exhibition explored the artistic and architectural connections between Spain and the Americas, focusing on the reinterpretation of the forms and meanings of ancient Indigenous cultures of the American continent from the late 18th century to the early 20th century. It also highlighted the fascination with ‘the ancestral’, a paradigm that has significantly influenced the aesthetics of both the recent past and the present.

Distribution of Najadaceae Species in Trans-Baikal Area Due to Climatic Factors

According to data of the late 20th century in the Trans-Baikal and Baikal areas, the family Najadaceae is represented by four species known in few localities: Caulinia flexilis (4 localities), C. minor (3), and Najas major (3), N. marina (4). All of them are annuals, r-strategists, which are characterized by fluctuations in abundance. Since the 21st century, these species have been found in 20 more localities, mainly situated within the Baikal Depression. In 2015, when performing monitoring studies of aquatic flora, three more new localities of Caulinia flexilis, C. minor, and Najas major were found in the basin of the Amur River. Distribution maps of the Najadaceae species in the region were compiled, and the ecological characteristics of their habitats were given. In Trans-Baikal area, since the middle of the 20th century, warming has occurred due to an increase in the average annual temperature. For the last 70 years, aridization has increased in southern regions, which changes the habitat conditions in waterbodies. Findings of these Najadaceae species in Trans-Baikal area coincided with the periods of increase in mean annual air temperatures and with local minimums of precipitation. An increase in the number of findings of the Najadaceae species since the beginning of the 21st century, both in Trans-Baikal area and in other regions of Russia, has been occurring against the background of an increase in the average annual air temperature. In Trans-Baikal area, the trend of increasing of temperatures in the warm season since the beginning of the 21st century is favorable for these species and may contribute to their further distribution.

The Miskolc Method: Modelling the Evolution of a Natural City with Recursive Algorithms Using Simulated Morphogenesis

This article explores the application of procedural design methods in urban morphology, drawing inspiration from the innovative work of the Architectural Workshop of Miskolc in Hungary during the late 20th century. This study presents a generative approach termed “Simulated Morphogenesis” (or the “Miskolc Method”), which models organic city growth by analysing historical urban tissues and applying recursive algorithms to simulate natural urban development. The method leverages advanced generative tools, such as Rhinoceros 3D and Grasshopper, to model the step-by-step growth of Central European cities, with a particular focus on Miskolc. By incorporating controlled randomness into the algorithmic processes, the method captures the complexity of organic urban growth while maintaining structured development. The Miskolc Method emphasizes the importance of continuity and context, allowing for the “healing” of urban fabric discontinuities or the generation of new urban structures. This article demonstrates how this approach, while rooted in geometrical analysis, offers a valuable foundation for preliminary urban planning. The findings are relevant for understanding the morphogenesis of cities and provide a flexible framework applicable to various urban contexts globally.

Envoy Trade and the End of the Tribute Relationship between Vietnam and China, 1802–1885

ABSTRACT This article analyses the commercial activities between Vietnam and China that were conducted by diplomatic envoys (ambassadors) in the 19th century, focusing on three aspects: those that envoys coordinated during tribute missions or diplomatic visits, the trade that they facilitated in the form of buying and selling goods in the other country, and the commerce that occurred when envoys escorted distressed or expelled travellers back to their home country. The analysis reveals that the trade conducted by ambassadors through most of the century was a two-way commercial exchange and driven by mutual interests. However, China’s demand for foreign goods was significantly less pronounced than that of Vietnam. Furthermore, there was a notable degree of asymmetry in benefits and an unequal level of control and influence in this form of trade. This asymmetry, along with the increasingly diverse forms of exchange between China and other countries (especially the growth of private trade) and the expanding role of Western merchants in the regional trade network, eventually ended the dominance of ambassadorial trade in commercial relations between Vietnam and China by the late 19th century. It also contributed to the end of the centuries-long tributary relationship between the two countries.

An overlooked contribution to Devonian studiesin the Holy Cross Mts: rediscovering Alexei Doronin’s 1893 article on the Kadzielnia Limestone

The unused Kadzielnia quarry in Kielce is the most publicly known geological site in the Holy Cross Mts and its geotouristic landmark (now the Kadzielnia Park and Reserve). The ‘rocky’ (coral) Kadzielnia Limestone, corresponding to a stromatoporoid-microbial mud mound, now treated as the Kadzielnia Massive Limestone Member of the Kowala Formation, has been studied for almost 200 years. This large bioherm is famous for its exceptionally diverse fossil inventory. The history of its geological exploration is insufficiently known, as exemplified by the overlooked contribution of Alexei Doronin, a master’s student at the Imperial University of Warsaw (IUW). In 1893, under the guidance of Professor Vladimir Amalitsky, he published a note on the age of the Kadzielnia Limestone. The paleontological basis for this discussion was the IUW student’s fossil collection, in which Doronin identified 28 taxa, mainly brachiopods (19 species). He was the first to recognize the occurrence of gastropods (e.g., Loxonema) and crinoids, and at least four species of brachiopods (e.g., Dielasma sacculus). In a comprehensive brachiopod-based stratigraphic discussion, Doronin emphasized the great similarity of the Kadzielnia assemblage to the Middle Devonian fauna of Western Europe, but also including the typical Upper Devonian species Rhynchonella cuboides. Ultimately, he advocated assigning a terminal Middle Devonian age to the Kadzielnia Limestone. Despite this erroneous dating, Doronin’s noteworthy but unnoticed contribution holds significant implications not only for further study of Kadzielnia but also for understanding the development of geosciences in the late 19th century in the Congress Poland (then part of partitioned Poland within the Russian Empire), including the academic role of the IUW. Unfortunately, for reasons unknown, the scientific career of Amalitsky’s talented pupil never truly began.

Maintenance and Supply of Post and Telegraph Stations in the Semirechye

The article explores the material supply of post and telegraph stations in the Semirechye region during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The management of postal routes, transport safety, and the construction and equipment of stations were determined by the state, private entrepreneurs, and the local Kazakh population, who were taxed for these services. In addressing these challenges, the Russian Empire drew from European experiences, directly applying the postal station management model from Russia. Postal routes facilitated the transportation of correspondence, cargo, and passengers, thus solving essential communication issues within society. Government officials and soldiers also relied on these stations as key support points. Although the station attendants (overseers) were under the authority of post offices, they independently managed operations and relied on station-generated income. This arrangement was cost-effective for the state, allowing it to minimize expenses on postal institutions. The Russian government consistently worked to improve postal communication, and the system was subject to ongoing changes. However, despite some positive developments, both the Russian Empire and the postal system in Semirechye lagged behind European standards of postal transport.

Tikkun Olam

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the revitalization of the women’s suffrage movement in the United States (U.S.), and rising antisemitism in Eastern Europe during the same period prompted a rapid increase in the U.S. Jewish population. The simultaneity of these historic events naturally proposes an inquiry into the role of Judaism and the growing Jewish community in the U.S. women’s suffrage movement. Jewish teachings about the equality and dignity of humankind positioned the Jewish community to support women’s suffrage. Traditions of tzedek (pursuing justice) and tikkun olam (repairing the world) were central to the practical religion of American Jews and motivated them to pursue active roles in orchestrating this social change. Furthermore, Jewish lived religion and experiences with antisemitism evoked an empathy that inspired many Jewish individuals and communities to combat discrimination and inequality against other marginalized groups, such as by participating in the women’s suffrage movement. Contemporary American Jewry continues to uphold these traditions of activism as pursuing social change is part of performing mitzvot (commandments and good deeds) in Judaism. Thus, religion can inspire social change by empowering individuals to work towards a better world.