Laser-induced Surface Structures Research Articles

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy of Ammonium Nitrate Using Al Structures, Fabricated by Laser Processing of AlN Ceramic.

This work presents results on laser-induced surface structuring of AlN ceramic and its application in Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS). The laser processing is performed by nanosecond pulses in air and vacuum. Depending on the processing conditions, different surface morphology can be obtained. The ablation process is realized by ceramic decomposition as the formation of an aluminium layer is detected. The efficiency of the fabricated structures as active substrates in SERS is estimated by the ability of the detection of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). It is conducted for Raman spectrometer systems that operate at wavelengths of 514 and 785 nm where the most common commercial systems work. The obtained structures contribute to enhancement of the Raman signal at both wavelengths, as the efficiency is higher for excitation at 514 nm. The limit of detection (LOD) of ammonium nitrate is estimated to be below the maximum allowed value in drinking water. The analysis of the obtained results was based on the calculations of the near field enhancement at different conditions based on Finite Difference Time Domain simulation and the extinction spectra calculations based on Generalized Mie scattering theory. The structures considered in these simulations were taken from the SEM images of the real samples. The oxidation issue of the ablated surface was studied by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The presented results indicated that laser structuring of AlN ceramics is a way for fabrication of Al structures with specific near-field properties that can be used for the detection of substances with high social impact.

Enhanced mitigation of cavitation erosion by means of femtosecond pulsed laser-induced hierarchical surface structures

Hierarchical structures were fabricated on brass surfaces by means of a straightforward 2-step laser-scribing process. We tested the ability of these surface structures to withstand cavitation erosion and compared their performance to untreated brass samples. We found that hierarchical surface structures reduced the eroded volume by a factor between 7.2 and 22.7 times when compared to untreated samples after 800,000 cavitation events. Additionally, the hierarchical surface structures reduced the erosion by a factor between 1.1 and 1.5 times when compared to samples patterned with only microchannel surface structures, for the same amount of cavitation events. Up to 800,000 laser-induced cavitation bubbles were generated at a fixed standoff distance of 0.5 to test the mitigation effect of the scribed surface structures on the eroded volume. The eroded volume was computed by means of confocal microscopy. The results show that additional roughness imposed by the hierarchical surface structure acts as an energy dissipator as observed by comparing the sizes of the higher order rebound cavitation bubbles. These findings provide a promising solution for protecting equipment from cavitation erosion.

Microscopic mechanisms for initiation and evolution of femtosecond laser-induced columnar structures above the surface level of aluminum.

A better understanding of the formation of femtosecond (fs) laser-induced surface structures is key to the control of their morphological profiles for desired surface functionalities on metals. In this work, with fs laser pulse irradiation, the two stages of formation mechanisms of the columnar structures (CSs) grown above the surface level are investigated on pure Al plates in ambient air. Here, we find that the redeposition of ablated microscale clusters following fs laser pulses of irradiation acts as the nucleation sites of CS formation, which strongly affects their location and density within the laser spot. Furthermore, we suggest their structural growths and morphological shape changes are directly associated with the competition among four laser-impact hydrodynamical phenomena: laser ablation, subsequent molten metal flow, particles' redeposition, and metal vapor condensation with continued pulse irradiation.

Laser-induced surface structures at polymer surfaces irradiated by ns-UV-laser in water confinement and in air

Laser-induced surface structures at polymer surfaces irradiated by ns-UV-laser in water confinement and in air

Femtosecond fiber laser-induced surface structuring of metals at cryogenic temperatures

Creating nano/micron-sized topographies on metal surfaces holds great promise across many optical, biomedical, and industrial applications. Among the most effective and widespread techniques for producing precisely organized features on material surfaces is laser-induced periodic surface structuring (LIPSS). Herein, we utilize a femtosecond fiber laser to generate LIPSS on low- and high-thermal-conductivity materials under extremely low temperature conditions, and we compare the results with those achieved at room temperature. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first instance of conducting laser-induced surface structuring experiments under cryogenic conditions. We examine how the initial thermal conditions of the substrate affect the patterns that form on its surface. Different surface characteristics emerge based on the substrate's thermal properties and the intensity of the laser beam. For instance, when we subject a silver substrate (known for high thermal conductivity) and tungsten substrate (known for high melting point) to laser-induced surface structuring at a low temperature of 110 K, they develop high-spatial frequency ripples on the surface oriented parallel to the polarization direction of the laser with a periodicity of around 100 nm, which is one-tenth the wavelength of the irradiating laser (1030 nm). In contrast, the cooled stainless-steel substrates (known for low thermal conductivity) exhibit no alterations in the patterns or their periodicity compared to substrates structured at room temperature. Furthermore, the formation of well-defined LIPSS patterns continue to persist on the surface of the cooled copper substrate, even when using large number of laser pulses. However, there exist specific localized regions of increased energy that disrupt the uniformity of the LIPSS pattern formation when the process is carried out at room temperature.

Picosecond pulsed 532nm laser system for roughening and secondary electron yield reduction of inner surfaces of up to 15m long tubes.

Laser-induced surface structuring is a promising method to suppress electron mulitpacting in the vacuum pipes of particle accelerators. Electrons are scattered inside the rough surface structure, resulting in a low Secondary Electron Yield (SEY) of the material. However, laser processing of internal pipe surfaces with a large aspect ratio is technologically challenging in terms of laser beam guidance and focusing. We present a 532nm ultrashort-pulse laser setup to process the inner parts of 15m long beam vacuum tubes of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Picosecond pulses at a repetition rate of 200kHz are guided through an optical fiber toward an inchworm robot traveling inside the beam pipe. The system was installed, characterized, and tested for reliability. First surface treatments achieved the required scan precision. Cu2O-dominated nano-features were observed when processing at high average laser power (5 W) and slow scanning speed (5mms-1) in nitrogen flow, and the maximum SEY of copper was decreased from 2.1 to 0.7.

Investigation of Laser-Induced Surface Structures (LIPSS) on quartz and evaluation of their influence on material wettability

We report here on a study of the generation of Laser-Induced Periodic Surface Structures (LIPSS) on quartz upon irradiation with linearly polarized femto-second laser pulses (pulse duration τ = 200 fs and central wavelength λ = 1030 nm). Two different regimes of LIPSS were observed, Low-Spatial-Frequency-LIPSS (LSFL) and High-Spatial-Frequency-LIPSS (HSFL), characterized by different spatial periods and orientations. The formation of these two types of structures was investigated by varying the laser fluence, the number of laser pulses and the laser repetition rate. Once established how these parameters affect the generation of LIPSS, extended HSFL patterns (25 × 25 mm2) were realized, and their wettability was compared to that of pristine quartz. Contact angle measurements showed that HSFL textured quartz exhibits a super-hydrophilic behaviour, with a measured contact angle equal to 7.6°, with respect to pristine quartz which results simply hydrophilic and shows a contact angle equal to 41.2°.

Design of Surfaces with Persistent Antimicrobial Properties on Stainless Steel Developed Using Femtosecond Laser Texturing for Application in "High Traffic" Objects.

Metal-based high-touch surfaces used for diverse applications in everyday use, like handrails, playground grab handles, doorknobs, ATM touch pads, and desks, are the most common targets for pollution with a variety of microbes; there is thus a need to improve their antimicrobial properties, an issue which has become a challenge in recent years, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), drug-resistant pathogens are one of the main concerns to global health today, as they lead to longer hospital stays and increased medical costs. Generally, the development of antimicrobial surfaces is related to the utilization of chemical methods via deposition on surfaces in the forms of various types of coatings. However, the addition of chemical substances onto a surface can induce unwanted effects, since it causes surface chemistry changes and, in some cases, cannot provide long-lasting results. A novel approach of utilising ultra-short laser radiation for the treatment of metallic surfaces by inducing a variety of micro- and nanostructuration is elaborated upon in the current research, estimating the optimum relation between the wettability and roughness characteristics for the creation of antimicrobial properties for such high-touch surfaces. In the current study, AISI 304-304L stainless steel metal was used as a benchmark material. Surface texturing via laser ablation with femtosecond laser pulses is an effective method, since it enables the formation of a variety of surface patterns, along with the creation of bimodal roughness, in one-step processing. In this investigation, a precise approach toward developing hydrophobic stainless steel surfaces with tunable adherence using femtosecond laser-induced modification is described. The impact of basic femtosecond laser processing parameters, like the scanning velocity, laser energy, and wettability properties of the laser-processed stainless steel samples, are examined. It is identified that the topography and morphology of laser-induced surface structures can be efficiently changed by adapting the laser processing parameters to create structures, which facilitate the transfer of surface properties from extremely low to high surface wettability.

Effect of film thickness on laser induced surface structures formation on optically transparent polymer films

Laser-induced periodic surface structures can be prepared on polymer thin films, despite the absence of light absorption at the wavelength of the irradiating laser, by using a bilayer approach. Nanostructuring of a poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) layer, by laser irradiation at 532 nm, covered by a thin layer of a non-absorbing polymer, in this case, the ferroelectric copolymer poly(vinylidene fluoride - trifluoro ethylene),P(VDF-TrFE), allows the development of a grating-like structure on the surface. The range of thicknesses of the upper layer, which leads to the formation of LIPSS, has been determined. It is verified that for a thickness larger than 40 nm, no periodic structures are formed, neither in the upper layer nor in the bottom P3HT one. This can be explained considering a mechanical restriction which prevents P3HT rearrangement. The upper nanostructured surface layer exhibits ferroelectric properties as proven by piezoresponse force microscopy measurements.

Study on the Origin and Evolution of Femtosecond Laser-Induced Surface Structures: LIPSS, Quasi-Periodic Grooves, and Aperiodic Micro-Ridges.

We investigate the evolution mechanisms of the laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) and quasi-periodic grooves that are formed on the surface of monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si) when exposed to femtosecond laser radiation of different pulse duration, state of polarization, and fluence. The conditions required for producing LIPSS-free complex micro-ridge patterns are elaborated. The LIPSS evolution mechanism is explained in terms of scattering/interference-based phenomena. To establish the basis for our interpretation, single femtosecond pulses of different pulse durations are irradiated on mono-Si. The absence/appearance of LIPSS rudiments is explained in the context of spectral bandwidth and the associated effects on the intensity of the central wavelength. Shorter fs pulses of a wider bandwidth are employed to induce LIPSS-free micro-ridge patterns. It is demonstrated that the resultant micro-ridge patterns depend on the laser fluence distribution and can be manipulated through laser polarization. The curved morphology of LIPSS rudiments and the evolution mechanism of low- and high-spatial frequency LIPSS, i.e., LSFL and HSFL, are discussed. Finally, it is demonstrated that the consolidated quasi-periodic grooves result from HSFL welding together groups of LSFL. Although our findings are based on fs laser interaction with mono-Si, the results can also be applied to many other materials.

Nanosecond Laser Induced Surface Structuring of Cadmium after Ablation in Air and Propanol Ambient.

In the present study KrF Excimer laser has been employed to irradiate the Cadmium (Cd) targets for various number of laser pulses of 500, 1000, 1500 and 2000, at constant fluence of 3.6 J cm-2. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis was utilized to reveal the formation of laser induced nano/micro structures on the irradiated target (Cd) surfaces. SEM results show the generation of cavities, cracks, micro/nano wires/rods, wrinkles along with re-deposited particles during irradiation in air, whereas subsurface boiling, pores, cavities and Laser Induced Periodic Surface Structures (LIPSS) on the inner walls of cavities are revealed at the central ablated area after irradiation in propanol. The ablated volume and depth of ablated region on irradiated Cd targets are evaluated for various number of pulses and is higher in air as compared to propanol ambient. Fast Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analyses show the presence of oxides and hydro-oxides of Cd after irradiation in propanol, whereas the existence of oxides is observed after irradiation in air ambient. Nano-hardness tester was used to investigate mechanical modifications of ablated Cd. It reveals an increase in hardness after irradiation which is more pronounced in propanol as compared to air.

Comparison study of the femtosecond laser-induced surface structures on silicon at an elevated temperature.

The temperature dependency of femtosecond laser induced surface structures opens up a new scenario for studying ultrafast laser-mater interaction on the surface and a novel method for controlling the features of these structures. The shape and crystallinity of micro/nano surface structures created by femtosecond laser irradiation of n-type silicon (100) at elevated temperatures were compared in this study. Low spatial frequency laser induced periodic ripples structures (LSFL), micrometer-sized grooves, and spikes occur at room temperature as the number of pulses increases. At 400 °C, however, the grooves parallel to the polarization are the dominant structures, notwithstanding the presence of LSFL. As the temperature rises, the periodicities of LSFL increase, which we believe is due to a reduction in the oscillation of the surface plasmon polaritons due to the increased damping rate at higher temperatures. Furthermore, Raman spectra reveal that surface structures generated at 400 °C have higher crystallinity than those formed at 25 °C. Our simulations show that the better crystallinity at high temperatures is due to a slower resolidification velocity which is caused by a smaller temperature gradient and higher energy absorption. Our findings demonstrate that the features of femtosecond laser induced surface structures, such as periodicity and crystallinity, can be controlled by adjusting the substrate temperature simultaneously, paving the way for high crystallinity surface micro/nano-structures.

Correction: Impact of plasma conditions on the shape of femtosecond laser-induced surface structures of Ti and Ni

Correction: Impact of plasma conditions on the shape of femtosecond laser-induced surface structures of Ti and Ni

Aluminum oxide nanotubes fabricated via laser ablation process: Application as superhydrophobic surfaces

Laser-induced surface structuring is a promising technique for the novel formation of nanostructures that can effectively be used to modify the surface and synthesis of nanostructures. Metallic and semiconductor oxide nanotubes presently have been attracted in an extensive domain of materials that range from optoelectronic, gas sensor, catalyst, and superhydrophobic surface applications. In this work, aluminum oxide nanotubes were successfully fabricated by laser ablation processes of a 40-nm gold nanolayer coated on an aluminum surface plate inside the ethanol. A continuous-wave fiber laser with a power of 40 W was used to create Al2O3 nanotubes. The electron diffraction pattern analysis of these nanotubes demonstrated that the Al2O3 nanotubes had a single crystal and hexagonal crystal structure with the lattice parameter of a = 0.432 nm as well as zone axis of z=12¯13¯. These nanotubes had a highly-crystalline structure with about 50–200 nm diameters, 10–50 nm wall thicknesses, and 5–20 µm length as well as open-ended. In addition, aluminum oxide nanotubes structures indicated a near superhydrophobic behavior with about 155° ± 2° as a contact angle using experimental and simulation approaches. Meanwhile, molecular dynamics simulation was applied to investigate the wetting property of the aluminum surface and the aluminum surface containing Al2O3 nanoparticles and Al2O3 nanotubes. The effect of the Al2O3 nanotubes on wetting properties was considerable compared to the Al2O3 nanoparticles. The growth mechanism of Al2O3 nanotubes was proposed and illustrated in detail. Also, the obtained findings of this work can be applied to superhydrophobic surfaces in industrial production.

Impact of plasma conditions on the shape of femtosecond laser-induced surface structures of Ti and Ni

Impact of plasma conditions on the shape of femtosecond laser-induced surface structures of Ti and Ni

Nanosecond laser-induced oriented periodic structures on AlN ceramic

This work presents results on nanosecond laser-induced surface structuring of AlN ceramic. The process under investigation is performed using the fundamental wavelength of Nd:YAG laser system. It is shown that the change of the ambient air pressure from atmospheric one to 10-4 Torr, leads to modification of the surface morphology – from ripples structure with a periodicity of about the incident irradiation wavelength, to an oriented periodic microstructure with a characteristic period in the range 10–15 µm. In all cases when the periodic structures are formed, a clear orientation perpendicular to the incident irradiation polarization is observed. The properties of the oriented periodic microstructures (OPMSs) formed at the lowest pressure condition are studied in more details, as the influence of the processing conditions on their characteristics is presented. It is found that the formation of OPMS requires a minimal laser pulse number and application of laser fluence above certain threshold. The surface of the fabricated structures is conductive, as the performed analyses indicate that the effect is related to presence aluminium in the processed areas. Possible mechanisms of formation of these structures are discussed. Ablation experiments using irradiation at 532 and 266 nm are also reported and discussed. The presented results may have significant impact when laser processing of AlN ceramics is considered, and for the design of structures with potential applications in microelectronics, tribology, and aluminium-based UV plasmonics.

Ultrashort pulsed laser induced complex surface structures generated by tailoring the melt hydrodynamics

We present a novel approach for tailoring the laser induced surface topography upon femtosecond-fs pulsed laser irradiation. The method employs spatially controlled double fs laser pulses to actively regulate the hydrodynamic microfluidic motion of the melted layer that gives rise to the structures formation. The pulse train used, in particular, consists of a previously unexplored spatiotemporal intensity combination including one pulse with Gaussian and another with periodically modulated intensity distribution created by Direct Laser Interference Patterning (DLIP). The interpulse delay is appropriately chosen to reveal the contribution of the microfluidic melt flow, while it is found that the sequence of the Gaussian and DLIP pulses remarkably influences the surface profile attained. Results also demonstrate that both the spatial intensity of the double pulse and the effective number of pulses per irradiation spot can further be modulated to control the formation of complex surface morphologies. The underlying physical processes behind the complex patterns generation were interpreted in terms of a multiscale model combining electrodynamic excitation with melt hydrodynamics. We believe that this work can constitute a significant step forward towards producing laser induced surface structures on demand by tailoring the melt microfluidic phenomena.

Laser-Induced Period Surface Structures to Improve Solderability of Electrical Solder Pads

We report on structuring copper representing soldering pads of printed circuit boards by laser-induced periodic surface structures. Femtosecond laser radiation is used to generate low spatial frequency laser-induced surface structures, having a spatial period of 992 nm and a modulation depth of 120 nm, respectively. The slump of screen-printed solder paste is measured to compare the solder coverage on the pads after the solder process on a hot plate. A comparative study of the coverage of solder paste on a fresh polished pad, a pad stored for two weeks, and femtosecond laser-structured pads reveals the improved wettability of structured pads even after storage. In addition, leaded and lead-free solder pads are compared with the particular advantages of the solder-free pad when periodically laser structured. Our findings are attributed to two major effects: namely, the increase of the surface area and the improved surface chemical wettability. Overall, the application of laser-induced periodic surface structures helps to reduce the demand of lead-based solder in the electronic industry and provides a feasible method for a fast and spatial selective way of surface functionalization.

Role of the intensity profile in femtosecond laser surface texturing: An experimental study

Femtosecond Laser Induced Surface Structures evolve from ripples to spikes upon the increase of the energy dose Φ. Nevertheless, for a fixed Φ, several process parameters (pulse energy, repetition rate, average power, overlapping, etc.) play an important role in determining the resulting morphology. Here we show that the beam intensity profile Î as well has an important bearing on the structures morphology evolution. In the case of a Gaussian beam, Î has been modified by varying the beam size d. We observed that for a stationary beam, and for a Φ value, passing from d = 13 µm to d = 200 µm makes possible the transition from ripples to spikes. This transition is made energetically advantageous by using a Top Hat profile. Compared to a 200 µm wide Gaussian beam, a 62 µm wide Top Hat reduces by 10 the Φ required to yield a similar surface morphology (coexistence of spikes and micro-groves). Confirming these results over a large surface could further validate the shaping of Î as a key approach to both fully exploit the output power of state of the art, kW class, femtosecond laser whilst increasing the surface texturing throughput.

Theory for heating of metals assisted by surface plasmon polaritons

We propose a model accounting for plasmons within a two temperature description, to investigate the role of surface plasmon polaritons (SPP) in the energy redistribution between laser excited electrons and the lattice, leading to surface restructuring of the material. This energy transfer can lead to the creation of laser induced surface structures in metals illuminated by an ultrashort laser pulse. The Two Temperature Model+Plasmon (TTM + P) equations are constructed by applying perturbation theory on the energy-, momentum- and density conservation equations of free electrons in metals. We consider three subsystems: the lattice, the thermalized electrons and the SPP, subject to an external laser field irradiation. The interference between the laser and SPP fields leads to spatially modulated energy absorption by the electronic system, and, through electron–phonon collisions, periodically shapes the lattice temperature. A numerical analysis is performed on a 1D model for gold. We show the emergence of a periodic modulation of the lattice temperature, which may contribute to laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS).