Large Surface Research Articles

Advancing the utilization of 2D materials for electrocatalytic seawater splitting

AbstractApplying catalysts for electrochemical energy conversion holds great promise for developing clean and sustainable energy sources. One of the main advantages of electrocatalysis is its ability to reduce conversion energy loss significantly. However, the wide application of electrocatalysts in these conversion processes has been hindered by poor catalytic performance and limited resources of catalyst materials. To overcome these challenges, researchers have turned to two‐dimensional (2D) materials, which possess large specific surface areas and can easily be engineered to have desirable electronic structures, making them promising candidates for high‐performance electrocatalysis in various reactions. This comprehensive review focuses on engineering novel 2D material‐based electrocatalysts and their application to seawater splitting. The review briefly introduces the mechanism of seawater splitting and the primary challenges of 2D materials. Then, we highlight the unique advantages and regulating strategies for seawater electrolysis based on recent advancements. We also review various 2D catalyst families for direct seawater splitting and delve into the physicochemical properties of these catalysts to provide valuable insights. Finally, we outline the vital future challenges and discuss the perspectives on seawater electrolysis. This review provides valuable insights for the rational design and development of cutting‐edge 2D material electrocatalysts for seawater‐electrolysis applications.image

Modified Biochar Materials From Eucalyptus globulus Wood as Efficient CO2 Adsorbents and Recyclable Catalysts

AbstractHighly porous carbon materials derived from renewable resources constitute a promising and sustainable strategy regarding the enhancement of CO2 capture technologies. In this work, the valorization of Eucalyptus globulus wood, a forest invasive species present in European forests, is performed through its transformation in biochar. The deposition of nitrogen and different metals (aluminum, copper and chromium) onto biochar is performed, using the magnetron sputtering as a pioneering technique, to produce coated biochar nanoparticles with improved properties. The resultant modified biochar particles maintain a highly porous structure and present a remarkable CO2 adsorption capacity (up to 4.80 mmol g−1 for N@BC), which is attributed to the synergy of their large total surface area (527 m2 g−1) and microporosity (pore diameter = 21 Å), with a high content of nitrogen and oxygen heteroatom moieties (40.4% N, 11.4% O). Their application as heterogeneous bifunctional catalysts in CO2 cycloaddition to epichlorohydrin is performed, in the absence of any solvent or co‐catalyst, under moderate conditions (20 bar CO2, 120 °C), leading to good conversions (up to 58% conversion) and excellent selectivity for cyclic carbonates. Cu‐coated biochar is shown to be more stable than non‐modified material, being recycled and reused along 4 consecutive runs without loss of catalytic activity or selectivity.

Surface microstructure regulation of a novel N-CQDs /C3N4/Bi2WO6 self-cleaning synergistic photocatalytic degradation of NO coating

As well known, the apparent structure and chemical composition of self-cleaning photocatalytic coatings are crucial for their application. In this study, C3N4 with a large specific surface area was introduced into N-CQDs/Bi2WO6 to construct a highly catalytic active catalyst (CBW-0.5), which continuously degraded 57.7 % of NO. A robust self-cleaning photocatalytic coating (CCBW-B) was prepared by firmly bonding CBW-0.5 to the substrate through a layered spraying process. CBW-0.5 endowed CCBW-B with high catalytic activity, maintaining a degradation rate of 64.9 % for NO, and most of the surface organic dye contamination was degraded after 36 h. Due to the appropriate arrangement of low surface energy substances and micro/nano particles on the surface, CCBW-B with a graded cross network on the surface has contact angles (CA) of 156°/145° for water/olive oil, respectively. The influence of each component of CCBW-B on its photocatalytic and liquid repellent ability was studied, and the patterns for the differences in coating performance due to the changes in surface roughness structure caused by different layer distributions was discussed. In addition, the mechanism for the excellent performance of CCBW-B was explored using SEM, specific surface area, and the theory of the generation and distribution of air pockets. Finally, the durability and self-cleaning ability of CCBW-B were tested, and the synergistic mechanism of self-cleaning and photocatalysis was also provided.

Covalent Organic Framework-Involved Sensors for Efficient Enrichment and Monitoring of Food Hazards: A Systematic Review.

The food safety issues caused by environmental pollution have posed great risks to human health that cannot be ignored. Hence, the precise monitoring of hazard factors in food has emerged as a critical concern for the food safety sector. As a novel porous material, covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have garnered significant attention due to their large specific surface area, excellent thermal and chemical stability, modifiability, and abundant recognition sites. This makes it a potential solution for food safety issues. In this research, the synthesis and regulation strategies of COFs were reviewed. The roles of COFs in enriching and detecting food hazards were discussed comprehensively and extensively. Taking representative hazard factors in food as the research object, the expression forms and participation approaches of COFs were explored, along with the effectiveness of corresponding detection methods. Finally, the development directions of COFs in the future as well as the problems existing in practical applications were discussed, which was beneficial to promote the application of COFs in food safety and beyond.

Effect of puffing on electrochemical properties of sorghum seed based porous carbon materials in supercapacitors

Biomass-based carbon materials are renewable, affordable and environmentally friendly, possessing great potential in electrochemical energy storage as electrode materials in supercapacitors due to their large specific surface area and self-doped heteroatoms. However, the electrochemical properties of these carbon materials may be influenced to some extent by pretreatment procedures of carbon precursors. For this research, a range of porous carbon materials based on unpuffed and puffed sorghum seeds were synthesized under various pre‑carbonization and activation temperatures. Among them, the puffed sorghum seed-based porous carbon (PH-R6A7), prepared through pre‑carbonization at 600 °C and KOH activation at 700 °C, exhibits a higher graphitization degree, increased N and O content, as well as a greater variety of nitrogen-containing groups and significant increasing graphite nitrogen compared to unpuffed sorghum seed-based porous carbon (PC-R6A7) fabricated under similar conditions. These improvements result in enhanced conductivity and wettability of electrode materials, thereby boosting their electrochemical properties. In a three-electrode setup employing a 6 M solution of KOH, PH-R6A7 demonstrates an exceptional specific capacitance of 523.84 F g−1 at 1 A g−1 compared with PC-R6A7 of 366.00 F g−1; even at a high current density of 20 A g−1 it maintains a high level of capacitance at 387.94 F g−1. When employed in a double-electrode configuration at the same current density (i.e., 1 A g−1), PH-R6A7 also achieves higher specific capacitance of 357.83 F g−1 than PC-R6A7 (286.89 F g−1), accompanied by an increased energy density of 12.35 Wh kg−1 and 8.85 Wh kg−1 at a power density of 249.97 W kg−1 and 4.98 kW kg−1, respectively. Furthermore, after undergoing 10,000 cycles at 2 A g−1, PH-R6A7 demonstrates a superior capacitance retention of 99.68 % and coulomb efficiency of 99.91 %. PH-R6A7 fabricated through the combination method of puffing pretreatment and carbonization activation merits acknowledgment as an electrode material of superior performance and notable practical importance.

MXene-montmorillonite nanocomposites-based scaffold sensors for early pancreatic cancer diagnosis

Pancreatic cancer is increasingly prevalent and characterized by a high mortality rate. Due to the limitations of current diagnostic methods, early-stage detection remains elusive, contributing to persistently low survival rates among affected individuals. Nanomaterials have garnered significant attention in cancer research for their potential diagnostic applications. Among these, MXenes – a novel family of two-dimensional nanomaterials composed of transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides – are of particular interest due to their unique properties. These include high electrical conductivity, hydrophilicity, thermal stability, large interlayer spacing, tunable structure, and high surface area. These characteristics make MXenes highly effective for detecting trace amounts of various analytes. In addition, their tunable structure enables precise manipulation of their properties, allowing for optimized sensing responses. Montmorillonite nanoclay (MMT), a member of the smectite group of natural clay minerals, is known for its ability to promote bone development and influence cell behavior. When combined with MXenes, MMT forms promising nanocomposites for early pancreatic cancer detection through sensing applications. The Ti3C2 MXene-MMT nanocomposites exhibit potential as scaffold sensors capable of distinguishing cancerous from non-cancerous samples by observing the distinctive patterns in resistance changes. In addition, MXenes possess excellent selectivity, allowing for the reliable identification of targeted analytes from a complex mixture of chemical and biological analytes. Due to the advanced sensing capabilities of MXene-MMT composite scaffold sensors, they hold great promise for early cancer diagnosis and tissue regeneration, providing a novel therapeutic approach to improving patient outcomes.

3D Printing of Hierarchical Structures Made of Inorganic Silicon-Rich Glass Featuring Self-Forming Nanogratings.

Hierarchical structures are abundant in nature, such as in the superhydrophobic surfaces of lotus leaves and the structural coloration of butterfly wings. They consist of ordered features across multiple size scales, and their advantageous properties have attracted enormous interest in wide-ranging fields including energy storage, nanofluidics, and nanophotonics. Femtosecond lasers, which are capable of inducing various material modifications, have shown promise for manufacturing tailored hierarchical structures. However, existing methods, such as multiphoton lithography and three-dimensional (3D) printing using nanoparticle-filled inks, typically involve polymers and suffer from high process complexity. Here, we demonstrate the 3D printing of hierarchical structures in inorganic silicon-rich glass featuring self-forming nanogratings. This approach takes advantage of our finding that femtosecond laser pulses can induce simultaneous multiphoton cross-linking and self-formation of nanogratings in hydrogen silsesquioxane. The 3D printing process combines the 3D patterning capability of multiphoton lithography and the efficient generation of periodic structures by the self-formation of nanogratings. We 3D-printed micro-supercapacitors with large surface areas and a high areal capacitance of 1 mF/cm2 at an ultrahigh scan rate of 50 V/s, thereby demonstrating the utility of our 3D printing approach for device applications in emerging fields such as energy storage.

Adjustable Humidity Response: Ultrahigh Green EMI Shielding Gel with Double‐Side Constant Temperature Capability

AbstractWith the increasingly serious secondary pollution of electromagnetic waves (EMWs), efficient green shielding materials have become an urgent need. MXene is widely used in electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding due to its large surface area and high conductivity. Here, this work constructs MXene islands with better shielding performance through viscosity control and continuous mechanical stirring. Benefiting from the MXene islands, Janus‐structural gel with humidity response is successfully prepared, showing controllable ultrahigh green shielding property (up to 100.5 dB, thickness of 2 mm). Interestingly, this gel can spontaneously adjust its water content according to the humidity, resulting in a reversible transformation in three states to meet the needs of different environments. By Janus‐structural design and reasonable material combination, this gel demonstrates excellent electrothermal (rise to 111.6 °C, 5 s, 2 V)/thermal insulation (thermal conductivity is low to 0.029 W m−1 K−1) properties to meet the needs of shielding in underwater/fire operations.

Controlling Chelation and Esterification in Pechini Synthesis for Enhancing Chemical Looping Steam Methane Reforming using LaFeO3 Perovskite.

The properties of an oxygen carrier, such as crystalline structure, textural properties, and surface chemical species, significantly influence the redox performance in thermochemical redox applications. This study presents the synthesis of various lanthanum orthoferrite (LaFeO3) perovskites by adjusting Pechini synthesis parameters, including chelating agent ratio, calcination temperature, and solution pH. A larger surface area emerged as a dominant factor contributing to improved redox performance. The porosity of the polyester resin proves crucial in achieving a large surface area and a small particle size for the oxygen carrier. This goal could be attained by controlling the pH of the precursor solution. A low degree of chelation or precipitation may lead to uneven cation distribution, resulting in the enrichment of trace hydroxide impurities. These impurities can suppress the reducibility of particles during the looping experiment. Various investigations, using XRD, XPS, XAS, SEM, and N2 physisorption, revealed that porosity and crystallinity can be controlled by altering the synthesis parameters.

Bimetallic Au-Ag Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanostructures for Enhanced Detection of Dengue Virus E Protein

Abstract The development of highly sensitive and specific diagnostic tools for early-stage detection of dengue virus (DENV) is critical for effective outbreak management, particularly in resource-limited settings. In this study, we report a novel electrochemical immunosensor based on bimetallic gold silver (Au-Ag) nanoparticles integrated with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) for the detection of dengue virus envelope (E) protein. The Au-Ag bimetallic nanostructures exhibit superior electron transfer kinetics and enhanced electrocatalytic activity, while rGO serves as an excellent platform due to its large surface area and high conductivity. This synergistic combination improves antigen-antibody interactions and significantly boosts sensor performance. The immunosensor demonstrated a broad linear detection range of 100 ag/mL to 10 ng/mL, with a high correlation coefficient (R² = 0.98519). It achieved an ultra-low limit of detection (LOD) of 4.959 ag/mL for DENV E protein, outperforming existing detection methods. These findings highlight the potential of the Au-Ag- rGO-based immunosensor as a promising tool for point-of-care diagnosis, enabling rapid and cost-effective disease management and control.

Two-Dimensional Biodegradable l-Cysteine-Iodine Nanosheets for Computed Tomography-Guided Cancer Synergistic Sonodynamic Therapy and Chemotherapy.

Biodegradable versatile inorganic nanomaterials are highly desirable in the field of nanomedicine. Here, for the first time, we report a kind of novel two-dimensional biodegradable l-cysteine-iodine (l-Cys-I) nanosheet with high computed tomography (CT) imaging ability and sonosensitization efficacy. Such l-Cys-I nanosheets consist of iodine molecules and l-Cys, where the iodine molecules are coordinated and stabilized by l-Cys and cross-linked to form nanosheets through disulfide bonds. The large and convenient functional surface is further modified with targeting moieties DSPE-PEG-RGD and cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) to construct a nanotheranostic nanoplatform (CIRD). Under ultrasound irradiation, the CIRD nanosheets assist in tremendous reactive oxygen species generation and controllable DOX release, leading to remarkable anticancer performance both in vitro and in vivo due to the synergistic sonodynamic therapy (SDT) and chemotherapy. Our results validate that the CIRD nanosheets enable effective body excretion and negligible systemic toxicity owing to the biodegradation properties. The CIRD nanosheets, with biodegradability, biocompatibility, and versatility, hold great promise in nanotheranostics.

The potential role of iron-carbon micro-electrolysis materials in curtailing lag-phase stimulates kitchen waste anaerobic digestion at different solid contents: Performance, synergistic effect and microbial response

High-solid anaerobic digestion (HSAD) of kitchen waste was generally faced to the common problems such as systemic acidification, prolonged lag-phase time and low methane production. Iron-carbon micro-electrolysis (ICME) materials exhibited advantages that porous structure, large specific surface area and excellent conductivity. It was beneficial for organic compounds to hydrolysis. Moreover, ICME materials could establish direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET) pathway between bacteria and methanogens. ICME materials were commonly used to enhance the AD of wastewater, but they were rarely applied to HSAD of kitchen waste. In this study, ICME materials were utilized to enhance HSAD of kitchen waste at different solid content conditions. The results showed that the highest cumulative biogas yield (705.23 mL/g VS) was obtained in the experimental group (TS = 10%), which was 94.15% higher than that of the control group. At the same time, the addiction of ICME could shorten lag-phase time. Electrochemical characteristics and XPS analysis showed that ICME materials promoted the release of Fe2+ in the AD system and acceleration of direct interspecies electron transfer between microorganisms. Microbial community analysis showed that ICME materials enriched electroactive bacteria (Proteiniphilum), Methanosarcina, Methanobrevibacter and Methanofollis. Functional gene prediction revealed that ICME materials increased the relative abundance of carbohydrate transport and metabolism and coenzyme transport and metabolism. It provided a potential measure to treat kitchen waste.

Polyoxometalates@Metal-Organic Frameworks: Synthesis Strategies, Nanostructure Modulation and Application in Biomass Conversion.

Polyoxometalates@metal-organic frameworks (POMs@MOFs) have attracted much attention as multifunctional materials in biomass catalysis. Individual POMs and MOFs are hindered by their respective defects, such as poor stability and single catalytic active site, which make it difficult to realize large-scale applications. However, the combination of POMs and MOFs can be used to maximize the catalytic advantages of each. MOFs with high specific surface area and rich pore structure can effectively stabilize and uniformly disperse POMs, while the introduction of POMs also provides more catalytic possibilities for POMs@MOFs. Therefore, POMs@MOFs with ultra-high porosity, large specific surface area and excellent acid catalytic activity have unique catalytic advantages in the field of biomass catalytic conversion. In this work, we provide an overview of the current development of POMs@MOFs in the field of biomass catalysis. The synthesis strategies of POMs@MOFs are summarized and discussed, highlighting the in-situ synthesis methods. We focus on the nanostructure engineering of POMs@MOFs, and explore the "structure-property" relationship in depth. In addition, the representative work of POMs@MOFs in the catalysis of biomass derivatives is summarized. Filially, the prospects, and challenges for the future development of POMs@MOFs in the field of biomass catalysis are also presented.

Chitosan pyrolysis in the presence of a ZnCl2/NaCl salts for carbons with electrocatalytic activity in oxygen reduction reaction in alkaline solutions.

The one-step carbonization of low cost and abundant chitosan biopolymer in the presence of salt eutectics ZnCl2/NaCl results in nitrogen-doped carbon nanostructures(8.5 wt.% total nitrogen content). NaCl yields the spacious 3D structure, which allows external oxygen to easily reach the active sites for the oxygen reductionreaction (ORR) distinguished by their high onset potential and the maximum turnover frequency of 0.132 e site⁻1s⁻1. Data show that the presence of NaCl during the synthesis exhibits the formation of pores having large specific volumes and surface(specific surface area of 1217 m2g-1), and holds advantage by their pores characteristics such as their micro-size part, which provides a platform for mass transport distribution in three-dimensional N-doped catalysts for ORR. It holds benefit over sample pre-treated with LiCl in terms of the micropores specific volume and area, seen as their percentage rate, measured in the BET. Therefore, the average concentration of the active site on the surface is larger.

Management of Large Full-Thickness Burns Using Kerecis™ Acellular Fish Skin Graft and ReCell™ Autologous Skin Cell Suspension: A Case Report of Two Patients with Large Surface Area Burns

Management of Large Full-Thickness Burns Using Kerecis™ Acellular Fish Skin Graft and ReCell™ Autologous Skin Cell Suspension: A Case Report of Two Patients with Large Surface Area Burns

Vertically‐Aligned GaS Nanosheets‐Based Photoelectrochemical Photodetector for Fast‐Speed, High‐Sensitivity, and Self‐Powered UV–vis Underwater Optical Communication

AbstractUnderwater optical communication (UOC) based on the novel photoelectrochemical (PEC) type photodetector has garnered substantial interest in the field of marine resource exploration and ocean investigation due to its strong operability, self‐powered capability, and large sensitive area in harsh underwater environments. To achieve high sensitivity, fast transmission speed, and broadband response characteristics, vertical‐GaS nanosheets‐based PEC photodetectors are prepared by chemical vapor deposition for UOC application. The GaS based PEC photodetector exhibits excellent self‐powered photodetection and a broad UV–vis photoresponse range as well as high stability performance in both Na2SO4 electrolyte and seawater. Notably, it also demonstrates an exceptional photoresponsivity of 11 mA W−1 coupled with a fast response and recovery time of 12.9 and 13 µs which are superior to those of 2D layered materials and conventional wide‐bandgap semiconductors. These improvements are mainly due to the large surface area, short diffusion length, as well as high carrier mobility of vertically‐oriented GaS nanosheets. Strikingly, the constructed GaS photodetector showcases a broad bandwidth exceeding the −3 dB cutoff frequency of 55.3 kHz during UOC testing, successfully enabling transmission and decoding of character information. This work establishes the groundwork for developing high‐performance, self‐powered UV–vis photodetectors adaptable to UOC using PEC technology.

Dechlorination of Hexachlorobenzene by Ni/Fe Bimetallic Nanoparticles and the Influence of Co-Existing Heavy Metal Ions

Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) is one of the most persistent environmental pollutants of global concern. Ni/Fe nanoparticles, with their small particle size, large surface area, and high reactivity, are a promising candidate for HCB degradation. In this work, we investigated the kinetics and products of the dechlorination of HCB by Ni/Fe nanoparticles and how the presence of heavy metal ions Cd(Ⅱ) and Zn(Ⅱ) influences the reaction. It is found that 400 μg/L HCB can be rapidly removed by 7.5 g/L Ni/Fe nanoparticles and the removal percentage reaches 99% in 48 h. The removal is facilitated by adsorption and sequential dechlorination of HCB, producing PCB, 1,2,3,4-TeCB, and 1,2,3-TCB as the main products, with 1,2,3,5/1,2,4,5-TeCB, 1,2,4-TCB, and 1,2-DCB as the minor products. The addition of heavy metal ions Cd(Ⅱ) and Zn(Ⅱ) does not significantly affect the removal rate of HCB but hinders the adsorption and degradation of the byproducts through competitive adsorption. Additionally, the concentration of both Cd(Ⅱ) and Zn(Ⅱ) decreases rapidly and achieves over 98% removal in 4 h. Our study reveals that Ni/Fe nanoparticles can remove HCB and heavy metals Cd(Ⅱ) and Zn(Ⅱ) concurrently, with the extent of HCB dechlorination reduced compared to that without heavy metal. These findings may inform the application of Ni/Fe nanoparticles in the treatment of water bodies and soil contaminated by both halogenated aromatics and heavy metal.

MEMS fast steering mirror with a large optical aperture and high surface quality for free-space optical communication

This work presents a MEMS fast steering mirror fabricated by an 8-inch AlScN platform, with a large optical aperture of up to 10 mm and high surface quality (RMS < 20 nm, PV < 120 nm), intended for free-space optical communication. The device comprises a high reflective mirror plate, a pillar and four cantilever beams with AlScN thin films. This device is prepared by a wafer-level eutectic bonding process. A reinforcement structure is proposed to increase the resonant frequency and the resistance to deformation. The mechanical performance, including resonant frequency, step response, linearity, and long-term stability are characterized. The maximum tilting angle is 1.38 mrad at 68 V, the settling time is improved from 400 ms in the open-loop control mode to 0.5 ms with the double step algorithm. The relationship of the resonant frequency, surface figure, and the depth of reinforced ribs is studied through characterizing devices with different depths of reinforced ribs. The bonding quality and the mutual melting states of bonding layers interface are investigated.

N-Doped Porous Carbon Based on Anion and Cation Storage Chemistry for High-Energy and Power-Density Zinc Ion Capacitor.

Zinc ion hybrid capacitors (ZIHCs) show promise for large-scale energy storage because of their low cost, highly intrinsic safety, and eco-friendliness. However, their energy density has been limited by the lack of advanced cathodes. Herein, a high-capacity cathode material named N-doped porous carbon (CFeN-2) is introduced for ZIHCs. CFeN-2, synthesized through the annealing of coal pitch with FeCl3·6H2O as a catalytic activator and melamine as a nitrogen source, exhibits significant N content (10.95 wt%), a large surface area (1037.66 m2 g-1), abundant lattice defects and ultrahigh microporosity. These characteristics, validated through theoretical simulations and experimental tests, enable a dual-ion energy storage mechanism involving Zn2+ ions and CF3SO3 - anions for CFeN-2. When used as a cathode in ZIHCs, CFeN-2 achieves a high-energy density of 142.5W h kg-1 and a high-power density of 9500.1W kg-1. Furthermore, using CFeN-2 ZIHCs demonstrate exceptional performance with 77% capacity retention and nearly 100% coulombic efficiency after 10 000 cycles at 10 A g-1, showcasing substantially superior performance to current ZIHCs. This study offers a pathway for developing high-energy and high-power cathodes derived from coal pitch carbon for ZIHC applications.

Can the Mineralization of Antibiotics from Water Bodies be a Significant Step in the Fight Against Alarming Antimicrobial Resistance?

Introduction: The overuse and improper disposal of antibiotics may add to the continuous rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In this work, we demonstrate a sequential effect of two novel catalytic systems consisting of MIL-100(Fe) MOF (Metal Organic Framework) and MnO2 nanosheets to degrade amoxicillin antibiotic through the destruction of β lactam group. Method: The catalysts exhibit large surface area, excellent porosity, excellent catalytic activity, and insolubility and can be easily separable from the reaction mixture. Results: The sequential use of MIL-100(Fe) MOF and MnO2 nanosheets could showcase 92% degradation of amoxicillin within 1.5 hours under ambient conditions without any significant residual bi-product as confirmed by LCMS studies. Conclusion: Impressively, the antimicrobial susceptibility of degraded residue is lessened by 33% as compared to pure amoxicillin. result: we have successfully developed a two-part method to completely degrade amoxicillin, a commonly used antibiotic. This method utilizes catalysts, MnO2 nanosheets and Fe-MIL 100 MOF, applied sequentially. both catalysts are reusable, non-toxic, and easily separated from the reaction. In just 1.5 hours at normal conditions, this approach achieved 91