Large-scale Restoration Research Articles

Toward understanding the hydrologic, ecologic and community flooding implications of coastal restoration strategies: Sediment diversions

Evaluating the real-world impacts of proposed restoration strategies is a complex process. Typically, restoration is pursued to achieve a number of primary and secondary objectives as most coastal and deltaic areas support a variety of functions and activities with substantial social and economic values. In this analysis, we demonstrate the importance of considering the broad implications of planning and implementing restoration projects. We use a recently developed simplified and computationally efficient biophysical numerical model. The Mid-Barataria Sediment Diversion, a restoration project approximately 60 km down the Mississippi River from New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, offers an opportunity to quantify the benefits and potential impacts of large-scale restoration. Operation plans of the diversion are employed in this analysis to reveal the delicate balance between its potential benefits and possible adverse effects. Evaluation metrics include net land change and landscape evolution, change in salinity and subsequent shift in the distribution of marsh types, long-term change in the hydroperiod and marsh inundation, and change in the flood risk for unique local coastal communities and culture. We also consider subaqueous basin infilling, spatial sediment deposition, and creation of shallow water areas that might be of ecological value. These metrics are evaluated collectively under a set of future scenarios capturing long-term impacts of sea level rise and subsidence. This analysis provides evidence in favor of using a multi-metric approach to holistically evaluate restoration during the planning and design phases, as well as to guide the process of adaptively managing restoration projects post construction.

Mechanism and In Situ Prevention of Oxidation in Coal Gangue Piles: A Review Aiming to Reduce Acid Pollution

The acid pollution produced from coal gangue piles is a global environmental problem. Terminal technologies, such as neutralization, precipitation, adsorption, ion exchange, membrane technology, biological treatment, and electrochemistry, have been developed for acid mine drainage (AMD) treatment. These technologies for treating pollutants with low concentrations over a long period of time in coal gangue piles appear to be costly and unsustainable. Conversely, in situ remediation appears to be more cost-effective and material-efficient, but it is a challenge that coal producing countries need to solve urgently. The primary prerequisite for preventing acidic pollutants is to clarify the oxidation mechanisms of coal gangue, which can be summarized as four aspects: pyrite oxidation, microbial action, low-temperature oxidation of coal, and free radical action. The two key factors of oxidation are pyrite and coal, and the four necessary conditions are water, oxygen, microorganisms, and free radicals. The current in situ remediation technologies mainly focus on one or more of the four necessary conditions, forming mixed co-disposal, coverage barriers, passivation coatings, bactericides, coal oxidation inhibitors, microorganisms, plants, and so on. It is necessary to scientifically and systematically carry out in situ remediation coupled with various technologies based on oxidation mechanisms when carrying out large-scale restoration and treatment of acidic coal gangue piles.

The added value of the long-term ecological research network to upscale restoration in Europe

Achieving global restoration targets poses challenges including the need for long-term research and effective monitoring of success, fostering collaborations across diverse fields and actors, ensuring the availability of suitable reference ecosystems, and securing sustained funding. Yet, these conditions are often lacking, limiting the effectiveness of restoration. We provide an overview of ecological restoration practices in the pan-European region of the Long-term Ecological Research Network (eLTER) and demonstrate the importance of eLTER and its potential contributions to support the implementation of the EU Nature Restoration Law. We developed an online questionnaire to collect information on eLTER restoration experts and restoration projects details including the use of eLTER contributions (e.g. infrastructure, data and knowledge), between November 2021 and March 2022. We identified 62 restoration experts and 42 restoration projects from 18 countries. Our results show that eLTER restoration expertise covers most of the European habitats, diverse degradation states and restoration techniques. Most restoration projects (78%) involved long-term monitoring exceeding the average project lifespan, which has proven necessary to achieve restoration success. No common protocol was used for monitoring and evaluation or cost-benefit estimates, but respondents reported effective projects, mostly financed from national funds, and benefits in five ecosystem services on average covered per project. Key eLTER contributions included providing reference ecosystems, biotic and abiotic background data, and interdisciplinary discussion or stakeholder management. Ecological restoration is time intensive and requires long-term research and monitoring standardization to fully understand the restoration process and to ensure comparability across ecosystems. The eLTER network can help address these challenges providing added-value contributions through its infrastructure, long-term datasets, diversity of expertise and strategies that can help identify best restoration practices and support the EU Nature Restoration Law. Finally, additional and long-term funding from the EU and the private sector is needed to achieve global larger-scale restoration targets.

Challenges for reducing carbon emissions from Land-Use and Land Cover Change in Brazil

Brazil, a crucial player in global climate change mitigation, faces challenges in reducing its carbon emissions, of which nearly half are from land use changes. Despite potential reductions that can be achieved through halting deforestation and fostering forest restoration, setbacks in environmental governance have heightened emissions. This article assesses challenges and proposes solutions for conserving and restoring Brazilian biomes in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement by 2030. Notably, net carbon emissions from land-use change and forestry increased twofold from 2017 to 2022 due to deforestation in the Amazon and Cerrado. Native vegetation clearing peaked at 2.8 Mha in 2022, the largest area since 2008. The deficit of native vegetation within Legal Reserves and Permanent Protection Areas must be addressed through restoration. Achieving SDGs by 2030 demands urgent action against illegal deforestation, reinforced legislation for secondary forest protection, large-scale restoration programs, and economic incentives for forest conservation through payment for ecosystem services to rural landowners.

The impact of large-scale ecological restoration projects on trade-offs/synergies and clusters of ecosystem services

Understanding the relationships between ecosystem services (ES) and the factors driving their changes over long periods and multiple scales is key for landscape managers in decision-making. However, the widespread implementation of restoration programs has led to significant ES changes, with trade-offs across space and time that have been little explored empirically, making it challenging to provide effective experience for managers. We quantified changes and interactions among five ES across various stages of the Grain-to-Green Program in the eastern Loess Plateau, examining these dynamics at threefold spatial scales. We observed notable increases in soil retention and Net Ecosystem Production but declines in habitat quality and Landscape aesthetics under afforestation. Over time, and with more integrated restoration strategies, synergies between ES pairs weakened, and non-correlations (even trade-offs) increased. To avoid unnecessary trade-offs, we recommend incorporating socio-ecological factors driving ES changes and ES bundles, informed by empirical experience, into proactive spatial planning and environmental management strategies for multi-ES objectives. The temporal lags and spatial trade-offs highlighted by this study offer crucial insights for large-scale restoration programs worldwide.

A roadmap to coastal and marine ecological restoration in Australia

There is an urgent need for landscape-scale ecological restoration to reverse habitat loss and recover ecosystem functions and services. Given the unique nature of coastal and marine ecosystems a roadmap to overcome current barriers and guide transformative change is needed to achieve large-scale restoration. We conducted a national scale program of engagement with restoration practitioners, decision makers, industry, researchers, community groups, and Indigenous groups in Australia to map out the current state of implementation, barriers encountered and aspirations for the future. In collaboration with a graphic facilitator, we distilled the findings into ten guiding principles which are communicated through an engaging conceptual model. Here we articulate the ten guiding principles for large-scale coastal and marine ecological restoration and include discussion of the rational, the current state in Australia, and ideas for moving forward with respect to each principle. The principles are: 1) Co-design is central; 2) Fit-for-purpose governance; 3) No-gap funding; 4) Access to social, economic and biophysical data; 5) Evidence-based and transparent decision making; 6) Coordinated and at scale; 7) Robust monitoring, evaluation and reporting; 8) Clear strategy to adapt to climate change; 9) Nature-based solutions are implemented; and 10) Knowledge is shared effectively. We then evaluated the principles against three large-scale restoration programs in the UK, USA and Australia and found that their characteristics broadly adhere to each of the principles. Implementation of the roadmap is now necessary and will aid in achieving return of ecological functions in line with international commitments and societal goals.

Effects of large-scale restoration on understory plant communities in an industrial landscape

Starting in the mid 1970’s, researchers, industry leaders, and residents collaborated on one of the world’s largest regreening programs in the industrial region of Sudbury, Canada. The Sudbury Regreening Recipe included the application of crushed dolomitic limestone, nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium fertilizers, grass–legume seed mixtures across 8200 ha, and subsequent tree planting across 25 000 ha of acidic metal-contaminated land. The current study evaluated shifts in understory vegetation diversity and soil geochemistry on a chronosequence of sites treated the same way between 1982 and 2012. Fifty-six plant species were identified across the 24 sites, only four of which were planted in the initial remediation effort. Key factors influencing plant community composition and diversity were related to shifts in soil properties over time: bulk density, LFH layer depth, and mineral soil horizon pH. Plant communities differed with stand age and rocky sites had significantly different plant communities and lower canopy cover than less rocky sites. Mineral soil horizon pH increased with age, reflecting the movement of applied dolomite in soil. Despite high concentrations of total copper and nickel in soil, plant succession patterns were generally similar to those in naturally recovering forests demonstrating the overall success of the restoration program.

Reintroduction of self-facilitating feedbacks could advance subtidal eelgrass (Zostera marina) restoration in the Dutch Wadden Sea

Extensive subtidal eelgrass (Zostera marina) meadows (~150 km2) once grew in the Dutch Wadden Sea, supporting diverse species communities, but disappeared in the 1930s and have been absent ever since. Identifying the most critical bottlenecks for eelgrass survival is a crucial first step for reintroduction through active restoration measures. Seagrasses are ecosystem engineers, inducing self-facilitating feedbacks that ameliorate stressful conditions. Consequently, once seagrass, including its self-facilitating feedbacks, is lost, reintroduction can be challenging. Therefore, we aimed to test whether 1) sediment stabilization and 2) hydrodynamic stress relief would facilitate eelgrass survival in a field experiment replicated at two sites in the Dutch Wadden Sea. We induced feedbacks using biodegradable root-mimicking structures (BESE-elements) and sandbag barriers. Root mimics had a significant positive effect, increasing the chances of short-term survival by +67% compared to controls. Contrary to our expectations, barriers decreased short-term survival probabilities by -26%, likely due to hydrodynamic turbulence created by the barrier edges, leading to high erosion rates (-14 cm). Site selection proved crucial as short-term survival was entirely negated on one of the two study sites after five weeks due to high floating and epiphytic macroalgae loads. No long-term survival occurred, as plants died at the other site two weeks later. Overall, we found that sediment stabilization by root-mimicking structures was promising, whereas manipulating hydrodynamic forces using sandbag barriers had adverse effects. A mechanistic understanding of transplant failures is required before attempting large-scale restoration. Our study indicates that for seagrass restoration in the Wadden Sea, one should carefully consider 1) the reintroduction of positive feedbacks through restoration tools, 2) donor population choice and transplantation timing, and 3) site selection based on local biotic and abiotic conditions. Optimizing these restoration facets might lower additive stress to a degree that allows long-term survival.

Benefits of tropical peatland rewetting for subsidence reduction and forest regrowth: results from a large-scale restoration trial

Drainage and deforestation of tropical peat swamp forests (PSF) in Southeast Asia cause carbon emissions and biodiversity loss of global concern. Restoration efforts to mitigate these impacts usually involve peatland rewetting by blocking canals. However, there have been no studies to date of the optimal rewetting approach that will reduce carbon emission whilst also promoting PSF regeneration. Here we present results of a large-scale restoration trial in Sumatra (Indonesia), monitored for 7.5 years. Water levels in a former plantation were raised over an area of 4800 ha by constructing 257 compacted peat dams in canals. We find peat surface subsidence rates in the rewetted restoration area and adjoining PSF to be halved where water tables were raised from ~ − 0.6 m to ~ − 0.3 m, demonstrating the success of rewetting in reducing carbon emission. A total of 57 native PSF tree species were found to spontaneously grow in the most rewetted conditions and in high densities, indicating that forest regrowth is underway. Based on our findings we propose that an effective PSF restoration strategy should follow stepwise rewetting to achieve substantial carbon emission reduction alongside unassisted regrowth of PSF, thereby enabling the peat, forest and canal vegetation to establish a new nature-based ecosystem balance.

Effects of vegetation restoration on runoff and its components in the mountainous Haihe River Basin

Study regionTwo typical mountainous Haihe River Basins: The Xiaojue Basin and the Yehe River Basin Study focusesThe mountainous Haihe River Basin has suffered from a water crisis duo to large-scale restoration. Quantifying the hydrological impacts of vegetation restoration is necessary for local water management. In this study, we used the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) hydrological model, in combination with two vegetation restoration scenarios, to analyze the effects of vegetation restoration on runoff and its runoff components (surface runoff, baseflow, and total runoff) New hydrological insights for the regionOur results indicated a general decrease in surface runoff and an increase in baseflow as a result of vegetation restoration. At the seasonal timescale, total runoff and surface runoff decreases mainly concentrated in the flood season, and slightly increased in the non-flood season, and baseflow showed the opposite trend during the flood-season in the Xiaojue and Yehe River Basin. The magnitude of change in runoff components in the Yehe River Basin was higher than that in the Xiaojue Basin, and the Yehe River Basin has a larger water yield capability. This study advances our knowledge on the way in which vegetation affects runoff and offers recommendations for water resources management

Large-Scale Re-Implantation Efforts for Posidonia oceanica Restoration in the Ligurian Sea: Progress and Challenges

The Ligurian Sea (NW Mediterranean) has been a focal point for numerous interventions aimed at restoring Posidonia oceanica meadows. The success of pioneer restoration actions in France during the 1970s stimulated similar initiatives across the Mediterranean Sea. Early attempts in the Ligurian Sea were implemented in 1993 and 1996 on limited seabed areas (i.e., tens of square meters) at the two coastal sites of Sori and Rapallo (Liguria, NW Italy). No further initiatives have been reported for the Ligurian Sea until 2022. In that year, a large-scale restoration project, which uses biodegradable mats coupled with metal mesh, began in Liguria. Different levels of anthropogenic pressure and wave exposure characterize the three investigated locations: (1) Portofino, on the eastern Liguria and on the border with the Portofino Marine Protected Area; (2) Bergeggi in the central Liguria and within the Isola di Bergeggi Marine Protected Area; and (3) Sanremo in the western Liguria, without any formal protection. Despite recent setbacks caused by severe storms in late 2023, which particularly damaged the Portofino site, ongoing monitoring revealed promising survival rates. Most notably, the site in Bergeggi displayed a 90% survival rate in September 2023. Although challenges to restore P. oceanica beds persist, such as mitigating damages caused by unpredictable events, this extensive re-implantation initiative offers the opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness of new basin-scale restoration strategies. This approach marks an important step in the conservation of Posidonia oceanica habitat.

Post-fire Pinus radiata invasion in a threatened biodiversity hotspot forest: A multi-scale remote sensing assessment

Biological invasions are one of the most relevant factors of biodiversity loss, especially after fire disturbances. Wildfires can accelerate invasions of fire-prone species, like Pinus radiata, and dramatically alter ecosystems. However, how to assess the main impacts of this invasion process on the composition, structure, and functionality of ecosystems, including the post-fire revegetation processes, has not been fully resolved. This study aimed to evaluate the impacts of P. radiata invasion on fire-damaged forest ecosystems using combined remote sensing and in situ data, focusing particularly on changes in biodiversity, ecosystem structure, and functionality. The recovery of forest leaf area index (LAI) and the fraction of photosynthetically active radiation (FPAR) were monitored using Sentinel-2 time series products. Then the pre- and post-fire native community composition and the relationships of invasion and biodiversity with biotic and abiotic components were characterized using structural equation modeling (SEM). The postfire P. radiata density was mapped to quantify invasion intensity in three burned native forest fragments using generalized additive modeling (GAM) regressions based on UAS multispectral data. Biophysical metrics indicate that all forest fragments impacted by high, medium-high, and medium-low severity fires achieved a partial recovery of their canopy. The SEM model showed that microtopographic features and vegetation height explain native species diversity under pre-fire conditions due to their close relationship with favorable microclimatic conditions for species establishment. Vegetation height determined the abundance of P. radiata in post-fire conditions, and it negatively impacted diversity by promoting the homogenization of vegetation cover and altering diversity patterns. The general composition and abundance metrics also showed a substantial modification associated with the heavy (significant) invasion of P. radiata species. Predictive mapping of P. radiata density showed high accuracies (R2 =0.73 and explained deviation of 80%). The maps depicted an intense concentration of the invasive tree with a mean density of 76,217 individuals per ha−1 and high invasion spots with more than 176,000 individuals per ha−1. The quantification of invasion and mapping is a fundamental input for prioritizing areas and resources for a large-scale restoration program, and is a priority to avoid the loss of these highly threatened forest ecosystems.

Araguaia biodiversity corridor cost benefit analysis: Large scale restoration and sustainable agribusiness in Amazon and Cerrado

Ecosystem restoration is an important tool for reducing ecosystem loss and contribute to diminish the negative impacts from deriving from climate change, but can be very costly. This paper focuses on the cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis of recovering almost one million hectares of legally protected areas in the Araguaia Biodiversity Corridor (Brazil) following the Brazilian Forest code regulation. We analyze two paths for recovery, ecological and economic (including timber and agroforestry systems). We consider the direct and indirect local costs, as well as monetized environmental benefits using the social cost of carbon and avoided soil erosion. According to our estimates, in 50 years, the recovery of the Araguaia Corridor will lead to net societal benefits with either the ecological (US$ 19.8 billion) or economic (US$ 18.9 billion) pathways in all macro-regions (north, central, and south) and rural property sizes (small, medium and large). The recovery captures 262 million tCO2eq and avoids 527 million tons of soil erosion with the economic path; these estimates are 23% and 1.7% higher, respectively, when using the ecological path. Importantly, we show that the restoration activity is not carbon credit dependent on being profitable when based on the economic path proposed. Additionally, this study highlights the high profitability of agroforestry systems, especially in small farms. There are also relevant local impacts, from 12 to 38 thousand new direct jobs. Even considering a limited menu of ecosystem services (carbon and soil), we show that social benefits from the Araguaia biodiversity corridor restoration exceed its social costs, justifying the subsidization of ecosystem restoration. In this sense, land use policies can incorporate mechanisms for financial support, grants, or incentives to encourage and facilitate ecosystem restoration efforts in the region.

Restoring with risk: perceptions of reservoir flood risk in Whaley Bridge

Understanding flood risk perceptions is critical for effective flood risk communication. In 2019, the failure of Toddbrook Reservoir's spillway resulted in a severe flood warning being issued in the Whaley Bridge area. In 2022, a large-scale restoration began at the reservoir. This paper describes perceptions of reservoir flood risk by the residents of Whaley Bridge and experts in environmental science and engineering. Results show that risk perception varies, with residents perceiving reservoir flood risk subjectively and experts perceiving risk objectively. With no previous risk communication, residents did not consider there to be a risk of reservoir failure; moreover, they have trust in Toddbrook's restoration. Experts emphasize that risk can never be fully eliminated, but that the probability of failure is extremely low. Some considered climate change as a contributing factor to the event and uncertainties in the risks it poses brings a requirement to improve and maintain existing dams. Findings have demonstrated the importance of improved risk communication and a necessity to improve flood risk maps for accessibility, awareness and to better account for probability of failure to avoid misinterpretation of risk. By identifying differing perceptions of risk between experts and residents, better reservoir risk communication can be achieved.

ВТРАЧЕНІ ЕЛЕМЕНТИ АРХІТЕКТУРНИХ ПАМ’ЯТОК КИЄВА УКРАЇНСЬКОГО БАРОКО

The article is dedicated to the research of the loss of important architectural and compositional elements in Kyiv architectural monuments of the Ukrainian Baroque of the XVIIth – XVIIIth centuries. The author analyzes the architectural development of such Kyiv buildings as the Onufriivska Tower and the Church of Conception of Ann of the Kyiv-Pechersk Lavra, the Resurrection Church, the st. Illia Church, the Temple of Nikolas, the Intercession Church, the Old Building of the Kyiv-Mohyla academy, cookhouse and Church of the Holy Spirit of the Brotherly Epiphany Monastery, St. Sophia Cathedral, Church of the Ascension of the Phlor’s Monastery. All these objects have common destiny because of loss of their important Baroque details during XVIII–XIX centuries. Instead, they gained the forms of other styles, which did not detract from the national signs of these monuments. Such changes were made for various reasons: changes in fashion and styles in architecture, functional and utilitarian needs. However, such transformations were often anti-Ukrainian in nature, and they even ended up replacing Ukrainian symbols with Moscow ones. Let us highlight this very incident with the butt of the story: the reconstruction of the St. Sophia Cathedral in 1882. This unique monument and shrine was adorned with characteristic elements of the Ukrainian Baroque – sloping pediments on western and eastern façades. In fact, the temple was redecorated with elements of Byzantine and Russian architecture. During the Soviet time, the practice of replacing Ukrainian architectural symbols with Russian ones continued. Let us illustrate this with the example of the Ascension Cathedral of the Phlor’s Monastery in Podil. For a long time, researches did not pay attention on such a facts, but now it is time to restore justice to our national symbols. In the author’s opinion, today it is necessary to carry out in-depth research on historical monuments with a view to developing a concept and developing large-scale restoration projects that would restore their original beauty and completeness.

Applying water quality standards to pollution from diffuse sources

Water quality standards are instrumental in evaluating the status of water bodies, and in providing protective and restorative endpoints. To date, much of the infrastructure used to implement water quality standards has been directed towards remediating and managing pollution from point source discharges. However, pollution from diffuse sources is the leading cause of water quality impairment, especially by nutrients. Although the effects of nutrient enrichment on streams is well studied, and ecological thresholds identified, those thresholds have not been widely adopted as standards primarily because they are not attainable by point sources. Clearly, a framework for adopting and applying standards to manage pollution from diffuse sources needs to be decoupled from those intended for point sources. This paper argues for a relatively unstructured distributional approach to predict how ecological responses might shift in response to management of diffuse sources. The approach calls for first developing a deterministic model of stressor and response variables, followed by a reformulation as a Bayesian model. In the case here, a structural equation model was developed that linked nutrient enrichment, habitat quality, and chloride and manganese concentrations to an index of macroinvertebrate quality. Results from the Bayesian representation suggest that in landscapes where the drainage network has been highly modified for agricultural production, reduction in total phosphorus alone is expected to have a modest (but non-trivial) effect on macroinvertebrate condition, shifting the distribution of scores up by 1 point. The addition of habitat restoration is likely to shift the distribution upwards by 4 points, an effect size observed in Ohio, USA from other large-scale restoration efforts.

Brazilian forest restoration: Success or better than nothing?

The Brazilian scientific community and non-governmental groups have been working to establish forest restoration programs, compensating for deforestation and mitigating losses from biodiversity and ecosystem services. In contrast, the previous Brazilian government moved in an opposite direction, revoking legal acts and providing scope for the rural producers to sustain non-compliance activities according to the legal regulations. Among rural producers, there is a recognized conflict between agricultural production and forest restoration programs, which results in a chaotic condition where the implementation of the environmental laws is impaired. In this context, restoration projects are often practiced without effective integrated territorial planning. This scenario challenges the success of large-scale restoration programs. The Brazilian government needs to effectively adopt sound guidelines already suggested to promote a genuine state of governance, fostering restoration programs, and moving the country's development towards an ecologically planned environment.

Assessment of the restoration potential for ecological sustainability in the Xijiang River basin, Southwest China: A comparative analysis of karst and non-karst areas

Vegetation restoration is an eco-friendly strategy for countering land degradation and biodiversity loss. Since 2000–2001, large-scale restoration projects have been performed in Southwest China, with the net primary productivity (NPP) increasing over the past two decades. However, negative ecohydrological impacts, including streamflow decline and soil moisture deficit, have been reported following afforestation. Current understanding of the permissible NPP capacity (NPPcap) and NPP potential (NPPpot) under karst and non-karst areas or planted and natural vegetations constrained by environmental factors remains unclear. Here multiple environmental drivers characterizing the heterogeneous landscape in the Xijiang River Basin (Southwest China) were employed to predict the NPPcap using a random forest model. Results showed that 85% of the area exhibited an increasing trend in NPPcap during 2001–2018. Overall, 3.50% of the area has exceeded the NPPcap, implying an excessive plantation and potential water deficit in these areas. Excluding agriculture activities, urban areas, and water bodies, we found there is room for an average extra 22.85% of NPP enhancement. The NPPpot was spatially imbalanced, with high NPPpot located in the northeast, indicating these areas as a target area for future vegetation restoration. Moreover, the NPPpot reduction in karst areas (1.12 g C m−2 a−1) was more pronounced than in non-karst areas (0.26 g C m−2 a−1), highlighting a stronger negative impact on NPPpot in karst areas. Furthermore, significant NPPpot differences were found between planted vegetation and natural vegetation for both karst and non-karst areas. According to the findings, we identified four separate restoration sub-zones and proposed tailored strategies to guide the implementation of future restoration efforts. Our study highlights restoration potential and where land is available for reforestation but also the urgent need for future restoration activities towards ecosystem sustainability.

Science is the fuel required for lifting ecosystem restoration into the orbit of hundreds of millions of hectares

Restoring the hundreds of millions of hectares of degraded ecosystems worldwide will require new approaches to raise the required funds and new systems to implement at the required scales. Two decades of large-scale restoration in the subtropical thicket biome in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, have generated valuable information for developing such approaches and systems. The successful upscaling of restoration in this biome can be attributed to four main actions. First, from the outset in 2003, peer-reviewed science was foundational to the entire restoration initiative. Second, also from the outset, there was a commitment to large-scale, long-term ecological research by the public sector (the then Department of Water Affairs and Forestry in South Africa), which resulted in what is to our knowledge the world’s largest ecosystem restoration experiment, comprising 330 quarter-hectare plots distributed over ∼75,000 km2. Third, retrospective scientific description of previous restoration work — done by farmers in the 1960s and 1970s — provided valuable information on restoration’s multiple benefits, without having to wait for the large-scale restoration experiment to yield results. Lastly, diverse and short-term scoping studies were undertaken to address questions that emerged during the large-scale implementation of restoration. These studies were vital for rapid adaptive management and planning new scientific experiments, filling a gap between long-term ecological research and retrospective science.

Multifunctional Forest Restoration in Brazil: A Critical Analysis of the Trends and Knowledge Gaps in the Scientific Literature

The global demand for forest products will increase in the coming decades due to population growth and increasing environmental awareness. Therefore, the production of forest products through multifunctional forest restoration could be a meaningful opportunity for large-scale restoration while promoting sustainability and vegetation recovery. We conducted a comprehensive literature review to explore how forest restoration in Brazil can meet the growing global demand for forest products, thereby promoting the widespread adoption of restoration practices. The number of forest restoration publications addressing forest product supply has increased, but remains limited. Notably, only studies on payments for environmental services have increased significantly over the years, while studies on non-timber forest products and timber have not increased significantly. Similar patterns and trends were found in earlier studies. Many studies do not provide insights into the socioeconomic outcomes of multifunctional forest restoration, which is consistent with other research findings. The studies cited 108 native species of commercial value. According to the literature, these species can provide multiple forest products, making their management economically attractive. Multifunctional restoration in Brazil has the potential for meeting global demand for forest products and supporting large-scale restoration. However, advancing scientific and technological knowledge in this area is needed to make this feasible.