Large-scale Hydrogen Production Research Articles

A deep-learning-boosted surrogate model of a metal foam based protonic ceramic electrolysis cell stack for uncertainty quantification

Protonic ceramic electrolysis cells (PCECs) are widely considered as an emerging technology that shows capability for enabling environmentally friendly large-scale production of hydrogen. PCEC stacks’ performance is considerably lower compared to smaller, lab-scale button cells. This performance gap is largely attributed to the highly uneven distribution of reactants throughout the larger cell or stack, which presents a significant challenge to the development of PCEC stack. The issue of non-uniform reactant distribution in PCEC stacks can be effectively addressed by incorporating metal foam structures to replace the conventional rib design of the interconnect components. A 3D multiphysical model is developed to train a deep-learning-boosted surrogate model for PCEC with metal foam, which is subsequently used for parameter screening and sensitivity analysis. A collection of 12 inputs that encompass operating/structural/microstructural/material parameters are chosen, in which the operating parameters are identified as influential parameters. Three distribution uniformity indices maintain strong consistence to variations in the inputs, implying the positive role of metal foam. Faradaic efficiency (FE) is primarily influenced by the operating voltage with a total Sobol index of 0.6. The current density and FE are determined as the most stable performance indicators, exhibiting standard deviations of 0.15 and 0.81 respectively. According to a safety threshold of 10 K cm−1 for temperature gradient, the probability of the stack operating below this threshold is 88.61 %. Valuable insights into the design and performance of PCEC stacks that incorporate metal foam structures are provided. The workflow developed in this work can be further leveraged to explore and optimize PCECs.

Large-scale off-grid wind power hydrogen production multi-tank combination operation law and scheduling strategy taking into account alkaline electrolyzer characteristics

This paper proposes a multi-electrolyzer switching scheduling strategy based on the Pelican Optimization Algorithm (POA) to enhance the efficiency of large-scale wind power hydrogen production systems. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed strategy, we analyzed wind power data from three typical days in northern Hebei, China, with a 2.5 MW wind turbine output. We designed three strategies for comparative analysis: a simple start-stop strategy, a rule-based multi-electrolyzer switching strategy, and a POA-based multi-electrolyzer switching strategy. The study results demonstrate that the POA-based strategy exhibits higher hydrogen production efficiency and system stability under various wind conditions. Particularly, in extreme wind scenarios, this strategy significantly reduces the start-stop cycles of electrolyzers, thereby lowering operational costs and improving overall system performance. The main contribution of this study lies in the novel optimization algorithm and its validation through real-world data, demonstrating its effectiveness in large-scale wind power hydrogen production systems. Our findings provide new insights for enhancing the utilization of renewable energy and the economics of hydrogen production systems.

Transition metals-based electrocatalysts on super-flat substrate for perovskite photovoltaic hydrogen production with 13.75% solar to hydrogen efficiency

Harnessing the inexhaustible solar energy for water splitting is regarded one of the most promising strategies for hydrogen production. However, sluggish kinetics of oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and expensive photovoltaics have hindered commercial viability. Here, an adhesive-free electrodeposition process is developed for in-situ preparation of earth-abundant electrocatalysts on super-flat indium tin oxide (ITO) substrate. NiFe hydroxide exhibited prominent OER performance, achieving an ultra-low overpotential of 236 mV at 10 mA/cm2 in alkaline solution. With the superior OER activity, we achieved an unassisted solar water splitting by series connected perovskite solar cells (PSCs) of 2 cm2 aperture area with NiFe/ITO//Pt electrodes, yielding overall solar to hydrogen (STH) efficiency of 13.75 %. Furthermore, we upscaled the monolithic facility to utilize perovskite solar module for large-scale hydrogen production and maintained an approximate operating current of 20 mA. This creative strategy contributes to the decrease of industrial manufacturing expenses for perovskite-based photovoltaic-electrochemical (PV-EC) hydrogen production, further accelerating the conversion and utilization of carbon-free energy.

An optimal dispatch strategy of off-grid park integrated energy system considering source volatility

An off-grid integrated energy system (IES) with hydrogen storage at park-level is proposed, utilizing wind, solar and natural gas as the main energy supply to replace fossil fuels, in order to overcome the insufficient consideration of energy source conversion and information exchange in the traditional energy system. Firstly, an IES schematic consisted with typical devices is proposed, and all the components are modelled in detail. Then, based on the renewable energy (RE) input requirements and the facility parameters, an optimal dispatch model for multi-energy conversion based on hydrogen storage has been demonstrated. In addition, an improved particle swarm optimization algorithm is also introduced to improve the strategy. Combined with the environmental characteristics, the multi-objective solution with the lowest economic cost and environmental cost, the highest energy supply reliability and energy efficiency as the optimization objectives is determined. Finally, a case study is conducted using the practical data of the Chongli Large-Scale Wind-Solar Complementary Coupled Hydrogen Production System Application Demonstration Project to validate the feasibility of the study under real conditions. The result shows that the RE consumption rate is greater than 99 % under the premise of considering the environmental cost and ensuring the operation reliability, which can effectively improve the operation economy and user economy of the power grid

Hierarchical core-shell Ce-doped NiO@MoO2 architecture with Ni 3d-band center modulation for enhanced high-current-density oxygen evolution

Ce-doped NiO catalyst supported on MoO₂ nanorods (Ce-NiO@MoO₂) was constructed as a high-performance oxygen evolution reaction (OER) electrocatalyst. The introduction of Ce induced the formation of nanoflower-like NiO on the MoO₂ nanorod substrate. Ce doping not only created numerous unsaturated Ni coordination sites with higher oxidation states, serving as active sites, but also strengthened the adsorption of oxygen intermediates by upshifting the Ni 3d band center, thereby reducing the energy barrier of the rate-determining OH* → O* step. Consequently, the Ce-NiO@MoO₂ catalyst exhibited remarkable OER activity, with a low overpotential of 313 mV and outstanding 200-hour stability at 1000 mA cm⁻², which is attributed to unsaturated Ni active sites and promoted charge and mass transfer facilitated by the unique hierarchical structure. These findings highlight the crucial role of Ce doping in improving electrocatalytic performance and offer insights into developing efficient and cost-effective catalysts for large-scale hydrogen production via water electrolysis.

Efficient multi-objective rolling strategy of photovoltaic/hydrogen system via short-term photovoltaic power forecasting

Green hydrogen serves as an effective energy carrier for achieving sustainable development goals. However, the high production cost and intermittent renewable energy output cause obstacles to hydrogen production. Various electrolyzer control methods have been proposed to promote electrolyzers' efficiency. Traditional electrolyzer control methods may lead to significant differences in electrolyzer wear among large-scale hydrogen production systems. Hence, this paper proposes a multi-objective rolling strategy based on photovoltaic power forecasting to mitigate electrolyzer switch fluctuations, enhance hydrogen production efficiency, and better manage the electrolyzers. Initially, the trend of photovoltaic output is calculated based on the predicted values of the photovoltaic output from the particle swarm algorithm (PSO)-backpropagation (BP) model, and during the power ramp-up phase, some electrolyzers are activated in advance to expedite the cold start process and enhance the hydrogen production. Simultaneously, the electrolyzers' power distribution and operational status are adjusted in conjunction with the real-time power situation. Finally, a multi-objective rolling strategy is proposed to balance the operational indicators of the electrolyzers. The results indicate that the proposed method yields 4,952,642 Nm3 hydrogens over six months, which has increased by 5.37% and 9.00% compared to the simple start-stop and rotation strategy, respectively. Moreover, switch action times are reduced by 27.68% and 43.22%, respectively. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method in significantly enhancing hydrogen production and improving the economic feasibility of photovoltaic/hydrogen systems.

Global Optimization and Quantitative Assessment of Large-Scale Renewables-Based Hydrogen System Considering Various Transportation Modes and Multi-Field Hydrogen Loads

In the past, hydrogen was mostly produced from fossil fuels, causing a certain degree of energy and environmental problems. With the development of low-carbon energy systems, renewable energy hydrogen production technology has developed rapidly and become one of the focuses of research in recent years. However, the existing work is still limited by small-scale hydrogen production systems, and there is a lack of comprehensive research on the whole production-storage-transportation-utilization hydrogen system (PSTUH2S), especially on the modeling of different hydrogen transportation modes and various hydrogen loads in different fields. To make up for these deficiencies, the specific physical and mathematical models of the PSTUH2S are firstly described in this paper, with a full account of large-scale water-electrolytic hydrogen production from renewable power curtailment and grid power, various hydrogen storage and transportation modes, and multi-field hydrogen consumption paths. Furthermore, to achieve the maximum economic, energy, and environmental benefits from the PSTUH2S, a multi-objective nonlinear optimization model is also presented herein and then solved by the hybrid method combining the nonlinear processing method, the CPLEX solver and the piecewise time series production simulation method. Lastly, case studies are conducted against the background of a region in northwest China, where hydrogen consumption capacity in various years is accurately assessed and the potential advantages of the PSTUH2S are demonstrated. As the simulation results show, the power curtailment of renewable energy generation can be reduced by 3.61/11.87/14.72 billion kW·h in 2025/2030/2035, respectively, thus contributing to a 4.98%~10.09% increase in the renewable energy consumption rate and millions of tons of carbon emission reduction in these years. In terms of the total equivalent economic benefits, the proposed method is able to bring about a cost saving of USD 190.44 million, USD 634.66 million, and USD 865.87 million for 2025, 2030, and 2035, respectively.

Design Strategies of Hydrogen Evolution Reaction Nano Electrocatalysts for High Current Density Water Splitting

Hydrogen is now recognized as the primary alternative to fossil fuels due to its renewable, safe, high-energy density and environmentally friendly properties. Efficient hydrogen production through water splitting has laid the foundation for sustainable energy technologies. However, when hydrogen production is scaled up to industrial levels, operating at high current densities introduces unique challenges. It is necessary to design advanced electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reactions (HERs) under high current densities. This review will briefly introduce the challenges posed by high current densities on electrocatalysts, including catalytic activity, mass diffusion, and catalyst stability. In an attempt to address these issues, various electrocatalyst design strategies are summarized in detail. In the end, our insights into future challenges for efficient large-scale industrial hydrogen production from water splitting are presented. This review is expected to guide the rational design of efficient high-current density water electrolysis electrocatalysts and promote the research progress of sustainable energy.

Design Strategies of Hydrogen Evolution Reaction Nano Electrocatalysts for High Current Density Water Splitting.

Hydrogen is now recognized as the primary alternative to fossil fuels due to its renewable, safe, high-energy density and environmentally friendly properties. Efficient hydrogen production through water splitting has laid the foundation for sustainable energy technologies. However, when hydrogen production is scaled up to industrial levels, operating at high current densities introduces unique challenges. It is necessary to design advanced electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reactions (HERs) under high current densities. This review will briefly introduce the challenges posed by high current densities on electrocatalysts, including catalytic activity, mass diffusion, and catalyst stability. In an attempt to address these issues, various electrocatalyst design strategies are summarized in detail. In the end, our insights into future challenges for efficient large-scale industrial hydrogen production from water splitting are presented. This review is expected to guide the rational design of efficient high-current density water electrolysis electrocatalysts and promote the research progress of sustainable energy.

Pt atomic clusters/MoS2 nanosheets/Co-doped hollow carbon nanofibers for high-current–density alkaline hydrogen production

The application of layered molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) in catalytic hydrogen production has attracted great interest, while their catalytic properties are limited by poor electron conductivity and a few catalytically active sites. In this work, we demonstrated a highly active electrocatalyst for large-scale hydrogen production, consisting of two-dimensional (2D) Pt-MoS2 nanosheets along one-dimensional (1D) cobalt nanoparticle integrated carbon hollow nanofibers (Co@CHNF). The as-prepared Pt-MoS2-Co@CHNF had a large specific surface area (44.5 m2 g−1). X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS) and spherical aberration corrected transmission electron microscope (AC-STEM) demonstrated that Pt atomic clusters (Pt ACs) were doped on MoS2 nanosheets by thermodynamically induced spontaneous interfacial redox between MoS2 and H₂PtCl₆. The Pt-MoS2-Co@CHNF based catalysts exhibited an overpotential as low as 91 mV for 10 mA cm−2 and 258 mV for 200 mA cm−2 in 1 M KOH electrolyte, and there is no significant floating for catalytic active with 14 h continuous operation, which demonstrates its excellent long-term operation durability, significantly superior to the previously reported state-of-the-art Co-based or Mo-based catalysts. In particular, the self-supporting binder-free Pt-MoS2-Co@CHNF catalyst-based electrode showed an ultra-high current density of 500 mA cm−2 at a low overpotential of 301 mV, without any decrease after 24 h operation at 500 mA cm−2 in 1 M KOH seawater electrolyte, representing a great potential for large-scale seawater hydrogen production.

Technological evolution of large-scale blue hydrogen production toward the U.S. Hydrogen Energy Earthshot

Hydrogen potentially has a crucial role in the U.S. transition to a net-zero emissions economy. Learning from large-scale hydrogen projects will boost technological evolution and innovation toward the U.S. Hydrogen Energy Earthshot. We apply experience curves to estimate the evolving costs of blue hydrogen production and to further examine the economic effect on technological evolution of the Inflation Reduction Act’s tax credits for carbon sequestration and clean hydrogen. Learning-by-doing alone can decrease the production cost of blue hydrogen. Without tax incentives, however, it is hard for blue hydrogen production to reach the cost target of $1/kg H2. Here we show that the breakeven cumulative production capacity required for gas-based blue hydrogen to reach the $1/kg H2 target highly depends on tax credit, natural gas price, inflation rate, and learning rates. We make recommendations for hydrogen hub development and for accelerating technological progress toward the Hydrogen Energy Earthshot.

Effect of Escherichia coli on the photocatalytic behavior of TiO2 nanoparticles for H2 evolution from water

Various microorganisms are present in natural waters, and understanding their impact on the photocatalytic behavior of photocatalysts is crucial, especially in large-scale hydrogen production. In line with this, we conducted a systematic investigation into the influence of Escherichia coli on the photocatalytic performance of TiO2 nanoparticles for H2 evolution. The findings revealed a significant reduction in the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 nanoparticles in the presence of Escherichia coli. Specifically, the H2 evolution rate was observed to be 57% lower (8.3 mmol g−1 h−1) compared to when Escherichia coli was absent (19.1 mmol g−1 h−1). The primary reason for this phenomenon appears to be the rupture of Escherichia coli cells during the photocatalytic process. As a result, intracellular proteins are released and subsequently adsorbed onto the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles, impeding the photocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction. These results provide valuable insights that can inform the design of future photocatalytic hydrogen production processes.

Highly effective hydrogen evolution reaction in alkaline conditions using a sputtered bimetal Ni-Mo system: Experimental and computational evidence

Electrocatalytic water splitting is a promising method for large-scale green hydrogen production. Nevertheless, the electrodes used remain costly and exhibit limited adherence. We should develop alternative techniques using cost-effective materials to achieve robust catalyst-substrate adherence. Herein, we systematically investigate the HER performance of the bimetal Ni-Mo system fabricated by scalelable magnetron sputtering. The formation of the bimetal Ni-Mo system not only significantly increased the HER activity, but it also accelerated the kinetic reaction. The optimal ratio Ni/Mo of 6 enables the achievement of ultra-low overpotentials of 39 and 172 mV at current densities of −10 and −100 mA/cm2, respectively, in alkaline conditions. The performance of the electrode is also evaluated using the single-stack electrolyzer and further assessed in natural seawater. The long-term stability test at 1.6 and 4 A for each 50 hours shows stable performance. The HER improvement mechanism is systematically investigated through experimental and computational calculations.

The excellent performance of oxygen evolution reaction on stainless steel electrodes by halogen oxyacid salts etching

Development of low-cost, efficient, and stable electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution reaction (OER) is the key issue for a large-scale hydrogen production. Recently, in-situ corrosion of stainless steel seems to be a feasible technique to obtain an efficient OER electrode, while a wide variety of corrosive agents often lead to significant difference in catalytic performance. Herein, we synthesized Ni-Fe based nanomaterials with OER activity through a facile one-step hydrothermal etching method of stainless steel mesh, and investigated the influence of three halogen oxyacid salts (KClO3, KBrO3, KIO3) on water oxidation performance. It was found that the reduction product of oxyacid salts has the pitting effect on the stainless steel, which plays an important role in regulating the morphology and composition of the nanomaterials. The KBrO3-derived electrode shows optimal OER performance, giving the small overpotential of 228 and 270 mV at 10 and 100 mA cm−2 respectively, a low Tafel slope of 36.2 mV dec−1, as well as durable stability in the long-time electrolysis. This work builds an internal relationship between the corrosive agents and the OER performance of the as-prepared electrodes, providing promising strategies and research foundations for further improving the OER performance and optimizing the structure of stainless steel electrodes.

Anchoring Magic NiCo2O4/NiO on Ni Foam as an Effective and Binder-Free Electrocatalyst for Boosting Hydrogen Evolution Reaction

Electrocatalysts that can sustain water splitting without corrosion are required for large-scale water electrolysis applications. Thus, designing and constructing stable electrocatalysts is known as a crucial role in hydrogen evolution reactions (HER). Herein, NiCo2O4/NiO nanocubes on Ni foam (NF) as a stable electrocatalyst were fabricated successfully by using a facile hydrothermal method. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) confirms the formation of distinct magic NiCo2O4/NiO/NF nanocubes with a size of 50-150nm. The electrochemical tests indicated that the NiCo2O4/NiO nanocubes possess long stability of about 140h and exceptional HER activity with a low overpotential of 38mV at a current density of 10mA.cm-2 in a 1M potassium hydroxide (KOH) and a Tafel slope of only 45mV.dec−1. The obtained results indicated that this level of HER catalytic performance is assigned to the rough surface and synergistic interactions between Ni and Co atoms in the nanocubes. It was also determined that the existence of NiO interface layer causes robust adhesion between NF and NiCo2O4 nanocubes. In addition, this discovery points to an advantageous future for the configuration and synthesis of highly effective, non-precious metal-based electrocatalysts for large-scale hydrogen production via water-splitting.

Reticulated porous structures of La0.8Al0.2NiO3-δ perovskite for enhanced green hydrogen production by thermochemical water splitting

The preparation and optimisation of La0.8Al0.2NiO3-δ (LANi82) perovskite shaped as reticulated porous ceramic (RPC) structures for H2 production by thermochemical water splitting is presented for the first time. The perovskite was first synthesised in powder form following a modified Pechini method. The redox properties of the LANi82 were first tested under N2/air flow in a thermogravimetric analyser. After that, the sponge replica method for preparing RPCs was optimised in terms of slurry composition and final thermal treatment to obtain a LANi82-RPC structure with porosity and strength appropriate to enhance heat and mass transfer in further solar reactors. The optimised LANi82-RPC material showed an outstanding hydrogen production of 8.3 cm3 STP/gmaterial·cycle at isothermal conditions (800 °C). This production was increased up to 11.5 cm3 STP/gmaterial·cycle if the thermal reduction was performed at 1000 °C. Additionally, a stable activity with almost constant H2 production in consecutive cycles was obtained for the optimised LANi82-RPC in both cases. The structure of the reticulated porous materials, with open macroporosity and wide interconnected channels, enhances heat and mass transfer, leading to higher hydrogen productions of the LANi82-RPC as compared to the materials as powder form in the same experimental set-up. These facts reinforce the favourable prospects of LANi82-RPC for large-scale hydrogen production, improving the coupling to current solar thermal concentration technologies developed, such as concentrated solar power tower.

Unlocking Efficient Hydrogen Production: Nucleophilic Oxidation Reactions Coupled with Water Splitting.

Electrocatalytic water splitting driven by sustainable energy is a clean and promising water-chemical fuel conversion technology for the production of high-purity green hydrogen. However, the sluggish kinetics of anodic oxygen evolution reaction (OER) pose challenges for large-scale hydrogen production, limiting its efficiency and safety. Recently, the anodic OER has been replaced by a nucleophilic oxidation reaction (NOR) with biomass as the substrate and coupled with a hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), which has attracted great interest. Anode NOR offers faster kinetics, generates high-value products, and reduces energy consumption. By coupling NOR with hydrogen evolution reaction, hydrogen production efficiency can be enhanced while yielding high-value oxidation products or degrading pollutants. Therefore, NOR-coupled HER hydrogen production is another new green electrolytic hydrogen production strategy after electrolytic water hydrogen production, which is of great significance for realizing sustainable energy development and global decarbonization. This review explores the potential of nucleophilic oxidation reactions as an alternative to OER and delves into NOR mechanisms, guiding future research in NOR-coupled hydrogen production. It assesses different NOR-coupled production methods, analyzing reaction pathways and catalyst effects. Furthermore, it evaluates the role of electrolyzers in industrialized NOR-coupled hydrogen production and discusses future prospects and challenges. This comprehensive review aims to advance efficient and economical large-scale hydrogen production.

Understanding Performance Limitation of Liquid Alkaline Water Electrolyzers

Liquid alkaline water electrolyzers (LAWEs), being the most commercially mature electrolysis technology, play a pivotal role in large-scale hydrogen production. However, LAWEs suffer from low operational efficiency, primarily due to un-optimized electrode structure and chemical compositions. Thus, we investigated how various electrode configurations could impact LAWE performance. Our results show that Ni felt electrodes outperform the conventional Ni foam thanks to improved electrochemical active surface area (ECSA) and preferred electrode surface structure that minimizes the micro-gaps in between the electrode and separator. By comparing the stainless steel (SS) felt electrodes with Ni felt electrodes, SS not only shows better oxygen evolution reaction activity but also improved hydrogen evolution reaction activity, which is less studied in the literature. We also show that a bilayer structure with small pore radius facing the separator could further improve LAWE performance by further optimizing interfacial contact between electrode and separator. These findings enable LAWEs to sustain 2 A cm−2 at 2.2 V and operate steadily at 1 A cm−2 for nearly 600 h with negligible performance decay. Our studies establish criteria for selecting electrodes to achieve high-performance LAWE and, in turn, expedite the adoption of LAWEs in hydrogen production and the transition towards low-carbon economies.

MoO3/V2O5/Ni(OH)2 with multiple heterojunction interfaces for the hydrogen preparation from urea-containing wastewater

Compared to a single heterostructure, constructing multiple heterojunction interfaces to enhance bifunctional catalytic activity still faces challenges. Herein, a nanoflower-like electrocatalyst with multiple heterojunction interfaces, which consists of MoO3, V2O5, and Ni(OH)2 in-situ grown on nickel foam, is prepared through a one-step hydrothermal method (MoO3/V2O5/Ni(OH)2/NF, named MVN/NF). The MVN/NF exhibits superior catalytic performance, attributable to enhanced electron transfer facilitated by numerous heterojunction interfaces, a substantial active specific surface area, and a self-supported architecture. It requires low potentials for hydrogen evolution reaction, urea oxidation reaction, and overall urea electrolysis of 81 mV, 1.351 V, and 1.450 V (vs. RHE), respectively, to reach a current density of 10 mA cm-2. By cutting the material into a large-scale electrode for use in an alkaline electrolyzer, its Faraday efficiency was 90.0%, and the urea decomposition rate reached 45.1%. This work offers broad application prospects for the realization of large-scale hydrogen production and the decomposition of urea-containing wastewater.

In-situ construction of RuS2 nanocrystal-decorated amorphous NiSx nanosheets for industrial-current-density water splitting

Developing enabling electrocatalysts for water splitting to operate at industrial-current-density is crucial for large-scale hydrogen production. Herein, a facile wet-chemistry strategy and scalable in-situ sulfidation technique are designed for formation of RuS2 nanocrystal-decorated amorphous NiSx nanosheets vertically aligned on Ni foam (NF) (RuNiSx/NF) as ultra-highly efficient electrocatalysts for electrochemical water splitting (EWS). The optimized electrocatalyst exhibits an excellent hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) performance, requiring overpotentials of only 15, 50, and 114 mV at 10, 100, and 1000 mA/cm2, respectively, with robust stability at 10, 100, and 500 mA/cm2 for 120 h, ranking it one of the efficient electrocatalysts for industrial water electrolysis. The electron redistribution over heterointerfaces induces the modulatory electronic states of heterostructures, thus leading to the favorable adsorption behavior for reaction intermediates, enhancing intrinsic activity of active sites. Impressively, a RuNiSx/NF||RuNiSx/NF EWS device can afford industrial current densities of 10, 100, and 500 mA/cm2 at voltages of 1.55, 1.77, and 2.35 V, respectively, together with robust durability for over 50 h (@1000 mA/cm2). This work provides an innovative approach to design unique heterostructures for industrial EWS via modulatory electronic states.