Large-scale Irrigation Systems Research Articles

Equity in a tertiary canal of the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS)

This paper examines the fairness in distribution of water in a tertiary canal within the Indus Basin Irrigation System. Two methodologies are proposed: canal rating equations, and outlet discharge equations. The methodology is applied to a tertiary canal located in the Punjab, Province of Pakistan. Fairness/equity is expressed quantitatively using the Gini index. There is a difference in the estimated discharge depending on the methodology employed, however as we move along the canal the water allowance does not vary significantly with the distance along the canal. Hence for this particular canal the head-middle-tail inequity often reported and generalized in the literature is not observed. The advantage of a quantitative measure of inequity such as the Gini is exemplified by comparing the Gini with that at the secondary canal and also against itself if the tertiary canal could be operated “as designed”. We introduce two new concepts: systematic and operational inequity. Provided the costs of data acquisition can be reduced this technology has the potential to be scaled up and included in future development investments in large scale irrigation systems. Further work exploring the impact of information on stakeholders needs to be undertaken.

Contract farming and the reorganisation of agricultural production within the Chókwè Irrigation System, Mozambique

This paper contributes to the discussion about ‘inclusive business models’ as alternatives to large-scale land acquisitions by analysing a case in which a foreign agribusiness investor, within an impact investment paradigm, acquired and rehabilitated a rice processing plant in Chókwè, Mozambique. A contract farming programme drawn up to source raw produce for the factory led to radical shifts in control over land and water resources. The case is set against the background of a large-scale irrigation system that has played an important role in national agricultural policies since colonial times. The private sector-led development approach is strongly supported by the state which portrays it as an opportunity to reduce its dependency on rice imports. The investor redirected the benefits of land and water use through taking a role of coordination and control within the irrigated production system.The ensuing rural transformation reminds one of earlier periods in the development of the irrigation system: the central control over production, and the very high level of agricultural inputs and mechanisation, remind one of the state socialist period, while the removal of smallholders from their land and its concentration in the hands of a few bears a strong resemblance to the scheme's establishment under colonial rule.

Remote Scheduling System for Drip Irrigation System Using Geographic Information System

The Internet is widely accessible in Tanzania. Most of the technologies used in different organizations have changed to address their functions using web based information systems. In this paper, attempt is made to design software system using geographical information system (GIS) for the spatial and temporal distribution of irrigation supply for large-scale drip irrigation systems in Tanzania. Map based information system has gained popularity after evolution of simple tools to present spatial information using Internet. Due to water scarcity, it is envisioned that by 2050 the world won’t have enough water for communities, industries and agriculture. Web based precision irrigation system refers to deployment of remotely precision irrigation services using the application interface that connects to the Internet. Hence, this study presents the GIS in the context of precision farming to achieve precision irrigation strategy with special reference to precision farming of tea in Tanzania. The GIS-based irrigation scheduling system was designed for the scheduling daily drip irrigation water deliveries and regular monitoring of irrigation delivery performance for maximum yield. The “Scheduling” program computes the right amount of irrigation deliveries based on tea water requirements. The “Monitoring” program gives information on the uniformity of water distribution and the shortfall or excess.

Distributed Model Predictive Control Based on Nash Optimality for Large Scale Irrigation Systems

Irrigation system is a large scale system, consisting of many interacting channels, and spanning vast geographical areas. In practice, the water level is expected to the desired reference values for safety and efficiency. In this paper, the model of irrigation system is modeled by the principle on conservation of mass. Because of the strong coupling between neighboring pools in irrigation system and large disturbance from the environment, a non-cooperative distributed model predictive control (NDMPC) algorithm based on Nash optimality is proposed for the large scale irrigation system to design the controller for setting points regulation. Finally, a simulation example is given to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

Empowering rural women for poverty reduction via well-managed education and social support: a case study of Owa communities in Nigeria

Employing mixed methods research design of the ex-post facto type, this study made use of 240 rural women and girls selected through stratified sampling technique to find out the education and social support services that can be used to empower rural women of Owa communities in Nigeria for poverty reduction. Findings obtained through data analysis using descriptive statistics indicated that the strategies for effective management of education for poverty reduction among rural women include provision of vocational training, education on income generating activities and making the education provided relevant to their present and future needs. The social support services that can help empower rural women included provision of scholarship for girls and women and provision of large scale irrigation system for rural women farmers. The study recommended among others that league of professional in Owa communities; NGOs and CBOs should collaborate to empower women through education and social support services for poverty reduction and development in Owa communities, Nigeria.

Improving Irrigation Water Delivery Performance of a Large-Scale Rice Irrigation Scheme

AbstractThe availability of irrigation water and its equitable allocation in a large-scale rice irrigation scheme of Malaysia have been modeled. The model reliably estimates available water for irrigation at the intake of the main canal and simulates the recommended irrigation deliveries for 120 tertiary canals. Different water allocation and management scenarios were evaluated based on the sensitivity of the growth stages of rice to water, varying field-water demand, and perceived water shortages. The model provides a quantitative assessment not only of water allocation for irrigation but also of day-to-day or periodic irrigation delivery performances for a large-scale rice irrigation system. It provides 86% adequacy and 87% equity of irrigation delivery in the main season (August–December). The corresponding performance indicators provided by the model are 74 and 89% in the off-season (February–June). The dependability of water supply is higher in the off-season than in the main season, while the relati...

Modeling delivery performance in pressurized irrigation systems from simulated peak-demand flow configurations

A methodology to assess performance of pressurized irrigation distribution networks is presented, which is based on generation of flow configurations from simulated delivery scenarios, and on subsequent analysis of network operation and delivery achievements. The rationale of the methodology entails simulating the peak-demand flow configurations in the pipe network through a deterministic–stochastic combined agro-hydrological model, and forecasting the delivery performance by means of a hydraulic simulation model and of some specific performance indicators. The agro-hydrological model generates disaggregated information on soil water deficits for all the cropped fields downstream from the delivery hydrants, and forecasts the demand flow hydrographs and irrigation deliveries for the entire service area during peak-demand periods. The simulated-demand flow configurations are then passed on to the hydraulic simulation model, which evaluates the hydraulic performance achievable by the pipe network. The performance analysis is then refined using additional indicators specifically adapted to pressurized irrigation networks. The proposed methodology was applied to a large-scale pressurized irrigation system of southern Italy that is in need of modernization. Results proved the usefulness of the combined use of simulation tools as components of an analytical framework to address modernization and re-engineering of existing irrigation delivery networks, on the basis of targeted delivery performance.

Irrigation development in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta: Towards polycentric water governance?

Vietnam’s irrigation development policy directions are divided between the objective to continue increasing rice production through agricultural intensification and to improve farmer’s livelihoods through crop diversification and integrated farming. While the first objective requires the construction of new large-scale irrigation system in deeply flooded area of the Vietnamese Mekong River Delta, the latter demands the modification in management of existing irrigation physical infrastructure for non-rice crops, in particular brackish aquaculture in the coastal zones. This article looks at Vietnam’s irrigation policy formulation processes in the last three and half decades in relation to the idea of polycentric governance. It discusses the current shortcomings and potential role of polycentric governance networks to capture stakeholders’ interests at multiple governance levels essential for future policy development. It partially sheds light on the dark side of water governance, bringing to light the fragmented polycentric decision-making processes in Vietnam’s irrigation development policies. Keywords: irrigation development, rice production, policy evolution, polycentric governance, Mekong River Delta

농업용 관수로의 최적관경 선정을 위한 개선방안 연구

전통적으로 농업용수 공급시설은 개수로의 형태가 대부분이었으나 비효율적이고 운영 및 관리에 어려움이 있다는 단점이 지적되어 왔다. 최근 들어 이러한 단점을 보완하기 위해, 안정적인 용수공급과 시스템 관리가 용이한 관수로 시스템으로의 전환이 모색되고 있다. 경제성을 고려한 농업용 관수로 시스템의 설계를 위해서는 최적화 기법의 적용이 반드시 필요하다. 하지만, 기존의 최적화 기법들은 결정변수가 많은 대규모 시스템에 적용할 경우 계산효율이 떨어지고, 실무에 사용이 가능한 해를 제시하지 못하는 경우가 많았다. 본 연구에서는 기존의 최적화 기법이 가지는 이러한 문제점을 개선할 수 있는 방안을 개발하고 적용하였다. 적용 모형은 관망 수리해석 프로그램인 EPANET모형과 군탐색 최적화 기법인 유전자 알고리즘(Genetic Algorithm)을 연계하도록 구성되었다. 기존의 유전자 알고리즘이 초기해(Initial Population)로 무작위해(Random Solution)를 사용하는 것과 달리, 본 연구에서는 수리해석을 이용한 전처리과정을 통해 선정된 초기전략해(Strategic Initial Population)를 사용함으로써 최적화 알고리즘의 계산효율을 높이고 동시에 전역해(Global Optimum)에 근접한 최적설계가 가능하도록 하였다. 개발된 모형을 대규모 농업단지에 적용한 결과 기존의 최적화 기법에 비해 경제적, 수리학적으로 개선된 설계결과를 얻을 수 있었다. 본 논문에서는 초기전략해를 이용한 농업용 관수로 시스템의 최적화기법을 상세히 설명하고, 그 적용절차 및 결과를 제시하였다. Traditionally, open channel flow systems have been mainly utilized for agricultural irrigation water supply. To date, a pipe network system is gaining spotlight as an alternative in this field for reliable and efficient water supply. Optimization techniques are beneficial for least-cost design of large-scale irrigation systems. Previous optimization techniques, however, had drawback in terms of computational efficiency when applied to a large scale system with lots of decision variables, and often provided solutions not applicable to real network design. In this study, an improved approach for determining optimal diameter of agricultural pipe systems are proposed. The model consists of a heuristic search approach, Genetic Algorithm (GA), and a hydraulic simulator, EPANET. Instead of using random initial population for GA, a strategic initial population was constructed and provided from a pre-processing based on iterative hydraulic analyses. The proposed approach enabled the optimal design to be found and improved computational efficiency of GA. The developed model was applied to a large-scale irrigation network and optimal designs were obtained with lower economic cost yet better hydraulic performances. This paper describes the proposed approach utilizing the strategic initial population and the application procedures and results are discussed.

Reconstructing the duty of water: a study of emergent norms in socio-hydrology

Abstract. This paper assesses the changing norms of water use known as the duty of water. It is a case study in historical socio-hydrology, or more precisely the history of socio-hydrologic ideas, a line of research that is useful for interpreting and anticipating changing social values with respect to water. The duty of water is currently defined as the amount of water reasonably required to irrigate a substantial crop with careful management and without waste on a given tract of land. The historical section of the paper traces this concept back to late 18th century analysis of steam engine efficiencies for mine dewatering in Britain. A half-century later, British irrigation engineers fundamentally altered the concept of duty to plan large-scale canal irrigation systems in northern India at an average duty of 218 acres per cubic foot per second (cfs). They justified this extensive irrigation standard (i.e., low water application rate over large areas) with a suite of social values that linked famine prevention with revenue generation and territorial control. The duty of water concept in this context articulated a form of political power, as did related irrigation engineering concepts such as "command" and "regime". Several decades later irrigation engineers in the western US adapted the duty of water concept to a different socio-hydrologic system and norms, using it to establish minimum standards for private water rights appropriation (e.g., only 40 to 80 acres per cfs). While both concepts of duty addressed socio-economic values associated with irrigation, the western US linked duty with justifications for, and limits of, water ownership. The final sections show that while the duty of water concept has been eclipsed in practice by other measures, standards, and values of water use efficiency, it has continuing relevance for examining ethical duties and for anticipating, if not predicting, emerging social values with respect to water.

Antropología, geografía histórica y formación del Estado en Mexico

The Mexican Historical geography hasn’t paid enough attention to the contributions made from social anthropology. People such as Miguel Othon de Mendizabal, Paul Kirchhoff, Pedro Armillas, Angel Palerm and Eric Wolf are among the most outstanding contributors of such an intellectual tradition of social anthropology. In particular, Kirchhoff’s concept of Meso-America, coined in 1943, has promoted a whole set of research, which has focused not only on providing meaning to that term, but also on paying more attention to the existence of pre-hispanics States. Its formation is linked to irrigation systems that made it possible to increased crop production and to supply a growing population. To think about the making of modern Mexico from an anthropological research on the prehispanic past provides another point of view on the process of the formation of the current national States and their relationship with large-scale infrastructure irrigation systems that were developed in Mexico after Revolution.

Organic Micropollutants in Rivers Downstream of the Megacity Beijing: Sources and Mass Fluxes in a Large-Scale Wastewater Irrigation System

The Haihe River System (HRS) drains the Chinese megacities Beijing and Tianjin, forming a large-scale irrigation system severely impacted by wastewater-borne pollution. The origin, temporal magnitudes, and annual mass fluxes of a wide range of pharmaceuticals, household chemicals, and pesticides were investigated in the HRS, which drains 70% of the wastewater discharged by 20 million people living in Beijing. Based on Chinese consumption statistics and our initial screening for 268 micropollutants using high-resolution mass spectrometry, 62 compounds were examined in space and time (2009-2010). The median concentrations ranged from 3 ng/L for metolachlor to 1100 ng/L for benzotriazole and sucralose. Concentrations of carbendazim, clarithromycin, diclofenac, and diuron exceed levels of ecotoxicological concern. Mass-flux analyses revealed that pharmaceuticals (5930 kg/year) and most household chemicals (5660 kg/year) originated from urban wastewaters, while the corrosion inhibitor benzotriazole entered the rivers through other pathways. Total pesticide residues amounted to 1550 kg/year. Per capita loads of pharmaceuticals in wastewater were lower than those in Europe, but are expected to increase in the near future. As 95% of the river water is diverted to irrigate agricultural soil, the loads of polar organic micropollutants transported with the water might pose a serious threat to food safety and groundwater quality.

GIS-Based Decision Support System for Improved Operations and Efficiency Conservation in Large-Scale Irrigation Systems

AbstractThe long-term sustainability of irrigated agriculture is contingent on application of cost-effective water conservation measures and improved management in the face of intense competition for limited freshwater resources from municipal, industrial, and environmental/ecological interests. A geographic information system (GIS)–based decision support system (GeoDSS) is presented for maximizing water savings from efficiency improvements and conservation measures through integrated management of large-scale irrigation systems. The GeoDSS incorporates the GeoMODSIM network flow optimization model as implemented within ArcGIS Desktop (ESRI, Inc.) and is applied to the large-scale, complex Imperial Irrigation District (IID) water delivery system in California in support of the IID/San Diego County Water Authority (SDCWA) Water Transfer Agreement. IID GeoDSS automatically constructs a GeoMODSIM flow network within an ESRI geodatabase composed of feature classes for IID canals, drains, reservoirs, farm gate...

Exploring complexity with the Hohokam Water Management Simulation: A middle way for archaeological modeling

The Hohokam Water Management Simulation is a simulation model constructed to explore the dynamics that underlie the long-term trajectory of the Hohokam, a people who lived in what is today Arizona (USA) and who built large-scale irrigation systems and operated them successfully for approximately 1000 years. The nature of the data available and the form of questions that the context prompts lead to a novel modeling approach that is described here. The core of the approach is the ability to shift the model's components along axes from highly detailed to very abstract, while pursuing a suite of related but distinct goals. The intent is to allow questions about the behavior of the entire socionatural system to be investigated to discern and explore complex system dynamics. The modeling framework and underlying theory is explicated, a (purely demonstrative) example is presented, and current work and future plans are discussed.

Simulation of peak-demand hydrographs in pressurized irrigation delivery systems using a deterministic–stochastic combined model. Part I: model development

A deterministic–stochastic combined model named HydroGEN was developed, as described in a companion paper (Part I: Model development), to enable the simulation of demanded daily volumes and hourly flow rates during peak periods in pressurized irrigation delivery networks. The model was applied to a pilot large-scale irrigation system located in southern Italy for calibration and for testing its reliability in analyzing the operation of large-scale pressurized delivery systems through the simulated flow configurations. Daily input data on rainfall, temperature, solar radiation, wind speed and relative humidity were gathered from a meteorological station located within the study area, whereas information on local irrigation management practices were collected through interviews with farmers and from extension specialists. The model was tested at different management levels, from district to sector and hydrants. The model testing was supported by the use of high-resolution remote-sensing imagery acquired on a single overpass date in 2006 and then classified and recoded following a ground-truthing campaign conducted during the same year. Simulations were performed to identify the 10-day peak-demand period and to generate the hydrographs of daily volumes and of hourly flow rates. Results from the different simulations were compared with historical datasets of irrigation volumes and discharges recorded during the 2008 and 2009 seasons at the upstream end of the irrigation network under study, at a sector level during the 2007 season and at selected delivery hydrants during the 2005 season. Some discrepancies between simulated and recorded data were noted that can be related to small errors in estimating crop and soil parameters, application efficiency at field level, as well as to large variability in irrigation management practices followed by local farmers. Overall, the results from testing showed that the model is capable of forecasting with good accuracy the timing of peak-demand periods, the irrigation volumes demanded during the season, as well as the hydrographs of daily volumes and hourly flow rates withdrawn by farmers during these peak-demand periods, especially when it is applied to large multi-cropped command areas.

The Spread of Inequality

The causes of socioeconomic inequality have been debated since the time of Plato. Many reasons for the development of stratification have been proposed, from the need for hierarchical control over large-scale irrigation systems to the accumulation of small differences in wealth over time via inheritance processes. However, none of these explains how unequal societies came to completely displace egalitarian cultural norms over time. Our study models demographic consequences associated with the unequal distribution of resources in stratified societies. Agent-based simulation results show that in constant environments, unequal access to resources can be demographically destabilizing, resulting in the outward migration and spread of such societies even when population size is relatively small. In variable environments, stratified societies spread more and are also better able to survive resource shortages by sequestering mortality in the lower classes. The predictions of our simulation are provided modest support by a range of existing empirical studies. In short, the fact that stratified societies today vastly outnumber egalitarian societies may not be due to the transformation of egalitarian norms and structures, but may instead reflect the more rapid migration of stratified societies and consequent conquest or displacement of egalitarian societies over time.

Reconceptualizing water management in Khorezm, Uzbekistan

Khorezm region is located in the northwest of Uzbekistan, approximately 350 km from the current shore of the Aral Sea. It comprises a large-scale irrigation system which conveys water from the river Amudarya to agricultural land cropped mainly with cotton, wheat, and rice. Khorezm’s water resources are vulnerable because they depend on upstream developments and are indispensable for rural livelihoods and state budgets. Since water scarcity is expected to increase in the future, sustainable water management is a necessity. Hence the objectives of the paper are to (1) conceptualise the distinctive features of water management in Khorezm, (2) provide an integrated analysis of water management by establishing linkages between society, technical infrastructure, and the bio-physical environment, and (3) make policy and technology recommendations for improved water management. To conceptualise water management in Khorezm, the paper distinguishes three types of practices: formal practices, strategic practices, and discursive practices. Based on these, it presents an analysis of water management on the state water management level, the water user association level, and the farmer and field level. For each level, recommendations are given. The paper concludes that elements of IWRM such as transparency, accountability, participation, and technical efficiency are relevant to improve water management in Khorezm as elsewhere. In addition, it suggests for Khorezm, in particular, to create legal space for agency and innovation. Technical tools such as models acquire additional importance in this context for facilitating transparency and enabling agents across the management hierarchy to access and make use of information.

Conjunctive groundwater use: a ‘lost opportunity’ for water management in the developing world?

Conjunctive groundwater use with surface-water resources has only occasionally been considered in the hydrogeological literature and at scientific conferences (e.g. Bredehoeft and Young 1983; Sahuquillo 2002), although in terms of practical water management it represents one of the most important responses to improving drought water-supply security and for long-term climate-change adaptation, and in terms of underpinning science its design requires a refined understanding of resource interconnectivity (both naturally and perturbed by irrigation works or practices) and of aquifer salinisation processes. The aim of this essay is to provide an overview of current conjunctive use in the developing world for both irrigated agriculture and urban water-supply, and to highlight the great potential that planned ‘conjunctive management’ has as a climate-change adaptation strategy. It is primarily relevant to larger alluvial plains, which often have important rivers, large-scale irrigation systems and major aquifers in close juxtaposition—although the potential for conjunctive management can be present in a wider range of settings. There is no rigorous definition for ‘conjunctive use’; however, for the present purpose it is proposed to consider only situations where both groundwater and surface water are developed (or co-exist and can be developed) to supply a given urban area or irrigation canal-command—although not necessarily using both sources continuously over time nor providing each individual water user from either source. Adopting this rather narrow definition excludes consideration here of artificial recharge of aquifers with surface runoff or by rain-water harvesting (without direct supply from the surface-water source), use of groundwater pumping to support river baseflows (without direct supply from water wells) and catchment-scale integrated water-resources management embracing everything from flood protection to wastewater reuse (because of insufficient finance as yet to apply this in the developing world)—although it is recognised that all such techniques can play an important role in water-resources management. A key characteristic of conjunctive use is that it deploys the large natural groundwater storage associated with most aquifers to buffer the high flow variability and drought propensity of many surface watercourses (Foster et al. 2010a), and is thus capable (at varying levels of efficiency) of achieving: (1) much greater water-supply security—by taking advantage of natural aquifer storage, (2) larger net water-supply yield than would generally be possible using one source alone, (3) better timing of irrigation-water delivery—since groundwater can be rapidly deployed to compensate for any shortfall in canal-water availability at critical times for crop growth, (4) reduced environmental impact—by counteracting land water-logging and salinisation, and (5) excessive river-flow depletion or aquifer overexploitation. These benefits have been the driving force for spontaneous conjunctive use of shallow aquifers in irrigation-canal commands worldwide.

Head-enders as stationary bandits in asymmetric commons: Comparing irrigation experiments in the laboratory and the field

The emergence of large-scale irrigation systems has puzzled generations of social scientists, since they are particularly vulnerable to selfish rational actors who might exploit inherent asymmetries in the system (e.g. simply being the head-ender) or who might free ride on the provision of public infrastructure. As part of two related research projects that focus on how subtle social and environmental contextual variables affect the evolution and performance of institutional rules, several sets of experiments have been performed in laboratory settings at Arizona State University and in field settings in rural villages in Thailand and Colombia. In these experiments, participants make both a decision about how much to invest in public infrastructure and how much to extract from the resources generated by that public infrastructure. With both studies we find that head-enders act as stationary bandits. They do take unequal shares of the common-pool resource but if their share is very large relative to downstream participants' shares, the latter will revolt. Therefore for groups to be successful, head-enders must restrain themselves in their use of their privileged access to the common-pool resource. The comparative approach shows that this result is robust across different social and ecological contexts.

Strategies and engineering adaptions to disseminate SRI methods in large-scale irrigation systems in Eastern Indonesia

The system of rice intensification (SRI) developed in Madagascar has been controversial in part because there have been no large-scale, long-term evaluations of the impact of its alternative methods. This paper summarizes experience with the dissemination of SRI practices across eight provinces in Eastern Indonesia over nine seasons from 2002 to 2006 under a major irrigation project. The Decentralized Irrigation System Improvement Project (DISIMP) was financed by the Japanese Government with project management by a Nippon Koei consultant team. SRI has been introduced in Indonesia via several organizations and in different parts of the country starting in 2000. The evaluation reported here, made by the DISIMP technical assistance team, is based on data from 12,133 on-farm comparison trials that covered a total area of 9,429 ha. Under SRI management, average paddy yield increase was 3.3 t/ha (78%). This was achieved with about 40% reduction in water use, 50% reduction in chemical fertilizer applications, and 20% lower costs of production. The farmers whom DISIMP was assisting to take up SRI were usually cultivating their paddy fields individually within irrigation systems where it was difficult to reduce water applications as recommended for SRI. Accordingly, innovations had to be made in soil and water management to create relatively aerobic soil conditions so that farmers could get the more productive rice phenotypes expected from SRI practice. This article describes the modifications made to adapt SRI concepts, pointing to the value of introducing in-field ditches, which was confirmed through paddy tract surveys. This experience and analysis showed how SRI methods could be utilized within irrigation systems where water management was not (yet) tailored to SRI production practices. Subsequently, modifications in irrigation system management are being made to be more supportive of SRI cultivation.