Large-scale Conservation Planning Research Articles

How landscape traits affect boreal mammal responses to anthropogenic disturbance

Understanding mammalian responses to anthropogenic disturbance is challenging, as ecological processes and the patterns arising therefrom notoriously change across spatial and temporal scales, and among different landscape contexts. Responses to local scale disturbances are likely influenced by landscape context (e.g., overall landscape-level disturbance, landscape-level productivity). Hierarchical approaches considering small-scale sampling sites as nested holons within larger-scale landscapes, which constrain processes in lower-level holons, can potentially explain differences in ecological processes between multiple locations. We tested hypotheses about mammal responses to disturbance and interactions among holons using collected images from 957 camera sites across 9 landscapes in Alberta from 2007 to 2020 and examined occurrence for 11 mammal species using generalized linear mixed models. White-tailed deer occurred more in higher disturbed sites within lower disturbed landscapes (β = −0.30 [−0.4 to −0.15]), whereas occurrence was greater in highly disturbed sites within highly disturbed landscapes for moose (β = 0.20 [0.09–0.31]), coyote (β = 0.20 [0.08–0.26]), and lynx (β = 0.20 [0.07–0.26]). High disturbance sites in high productivity landscapes had higher occurrence of black bears (β = −0.20 [−0.46 to −0.01]), lynx (β = −0.70 [−0.97 to −0.34]), and wolves (β = −0.50 [−0.73 to −0.21]). Conversely, we found higher probability of occurrence in low productivity landscapes with increasing site disturbance for mule deer (β = 0.80 [0.39–1.14]), and white-tailed deer (β = 0.20 [0.01–0.47]). We found the ecological context created by aggregate sums (high overall landscape disturbance), and by subcontinental hydrogeological processes in which that landscape is embedded (high landscape productivity), alter mammalian responses to anthropogenic disturbance at local scales. These responses also vary by species, which has implications for large-scale conservation planning. Management interventions must consider large-scale geoclimatic processes and geographic location of a landscape when assessing wildlife responses to disturbance.

Predicting population size at large scale: The case of two large felids

Approaches that allow capitalizing on local population estimates to derive global population estimates with associated uncertainty are urgently needed, especially for naturally rare species of conservation concern. Here we used published population density estimates to predict large-scale density patterns and derive global population estimates for two species of large felids, the leopard and the tiger. We modelled population density for the leopard (n = 392) and the tiger (n = 547) as a function of environmental and anthropogenic variables, while controlling for differences in sampling method and sampling area, time of data collection, spatial autocorrelation, subspecies and political protection. We used Bayesian inference to generate a distribution of plausible population sizes. Both species showed higher densities in high productivity areas, the leopard being more abundant in high precipitation, high level of terrain roughness and agricultural areas, and the tiger in areas with low croplands and low roughness. Primary roads density showed a negative effect on both species. Secondary roads density was associated to higher densities for the leopard but lower densities for the tiger. Livestock biomass showed a humped relationship with tigers’ densities. Temporal trends in average density were negative for the tiger, experiencing an average decline of 34% (IQR: 11% − 53%). In contrast, the trend for leopards showed a marginal, yet uncertain, increase in recent years 21% (IQR: −5% − 57%). We predicted a global population estimate of 261,636 (IQR = 146,768 − 461,512) and 5201 tigers (IQR = 2596 − 10,460). Large-scale models of population density that rely on unstructured data can contribute to our understanding of species ecology, produce robust population size estimates for conservation assessment and inform large-scale conservation planning. At the same time, the uncertainty around these estimates highlights the limited knowledge available for these species which should be accounted for in conservation assessments.

Towards a continent-wide ecological site condition database using calibrated expert evaluations.

A cost-effective way of undertaking comprehensive, continental-scale, assessments of ecological condition is needed to support large-scale conservation planning, monitoring, reporting, and decision-making. Currently, cross-jurisdictional inconsistency in assessment methods limits the capacity to scale-up monitoring. Here we present a novel way to build a coherent continent-wide site-level ecological condition dataset, using cross-calibration methods to integrate assessments from many observers. We focus on the use of condition assessments from individual expert observers, a currently untapped resource. Our approach has two components: (1) a simple online tool that captures expert assessments at specific locations; (2) a process of calibrating and rescaling disparate expert evaluations that can be applied to the data to provide a consistent dataset for use in conservation assessments. We describe a pilot study, involving 28 experts, who contributed 314 individual site condition assessments across a wide range of ecosystems and regions throughout continental Australia. A correction factor for each expert was used to rescale the contributed site condition assessment scores, based on a set of 77 photographic images, each scored for their condition by multiple experts, using a linear mixed model. Our approach shows strong promise for delivering the volumes of data required to develop continental-scale reference libraries of site condition assessments. Although developed from expert elicitation, the approach could also be used to harmonize the collation of existing condition datasets. The process we demonstrate can also facilitate online citizen scientists to make site condition assessments that can be cross-calibrated using contributed images.

Range-wide habitat use of the Harpy Eagle indicates four major tropical forest gaps in the Key Biodiversity Area network

Abstract Quantifying habitat use is important for understanding how animals meet their requirements for survival and provides information for conservation planning. Currently, assessments of range-wide habitat use that delimit species distributions are incomplete for many taxa. The Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja) is a raptor of conservation concern, widely distributed across Neotropical lowland forests, that currently faces threats from habitat loss and fragmentation. Here, we use penalized logistic regression to identify species-habitat associations and predict habitat suitability based on a new International Union for the Conservation of Nature range metric, termed Area of Habitat. From the species-habitat model, we performed a gap analysis to identify areas of high habitat suitability in regions with limited coverage in the key biodiversity area (KBA) network. Range-wide habitat use indicated that Harpy Eagles prefer areas of 70%–75% evergreen forest cover, low elevation, and high vegetation species richness. Conversely, Harpy Eagles avoid areas of >10% cultivated landcover and mosaic forest, and topographically complex areas. Our species-habitat model identified a large continuous area of potential habitat across the pan-Amazonia region, and a habitat corridor from the Chocó-Darién ecoregion of Colombia running north along the Caribbean coast of Central America. Little habitat was predicted across the Atlantic Forest biome, which is now severely degraded. The current KBA network covered 18% of medium to high Harpy Eagle habitat exceeding a target biodiversity area representation of 10%, based on species range size. Four major areas of high suitability habitat lacking coverage in the KBA network were identified in north and west Colombia, western Guyana, and north-west Brazil. We recommend these multiple gaps of habitat as new KBAs for strengthening the current KBA network. Modeled area of habitat estimates as described here is a useful tool for large-scale conservation planning and can be readily applied to many taxa.

Efficient small-scale marine reserve design requires high-resolution biodiversity and stakeholder data

Establishing marine reserves is particularly challenging in highly populated coastal areas where stakeholders compete for resources and space, such as the Mediterranean Sea. While large-scale conservation planning is useful, there is a need for finer-grained assessments at local and regional scales. Yet fine scale environmental and socioeconomic data are not always available. Here, we evaluate the influence of the spatial resolution of biodiversity and socioeconomic data on the selection of priority areas for conservation in Montgrí, the Illes Medes and the Baix Ter Natural Park, Spain. We used varying levels of habitat data, from fine-scale maps created using detailed bathymetry and underwater surveys to less detailed ones using existing data or broader classifications. We also used different estimates of the cost of protection, from a combined recreational and artisanal fishing cost obtained through local consultation and in situ mapping to simple indirect measures such as distance to port. Our results reveal that conservation planning scenarios that do not use fine-scale bathymetry are ineffective at protecting biodiversity and only represent 40% or less of the habitats. Scenarios that only include recreational fishing, which is limited to certain planning units in the park, perform very poorly at minimizing cost, highlighting the need to use cost estimates that include all planning units. We conclude that local-scale data will often be needed to support and guide local-scale efforts to expand or establish new marine reserves.

Northern boreal caribou conservation should focus on anthropogenic disturbance, not disturbance-mediated apparent competition

Understanding the relative importance of threats to species across their range is critical for large-scale conservation planning. Scaling-up localized research to inform the Canada-wide boreal caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) recovery strategy epitomizes the challenge. Current policy draws heavily from data obtained at the southern front of range retraction. Here, disturbances benefiting early successional herbivores (e.g., moose [Alces alces]), and hence wolves (Canis lupus) imparts increased predation risk to caribou (via “disturbance-mediated apparent competition” [DMAC]). Anthropogenic linear features (e.g., corridors, roads etc.; LFs) also improve wolf hunting efficiency, exacerbating DMAC, with caribou thereby losing functional habitat. However, ~2/3 of extant caribou range occurs in northern Canadian Shield and Taiga habitat, which contrasts with southern areas in both disturbance regime (fire-dominated) and community assembly (e.g., no deer [Odocoileus spp.]). To test predictions of DMAC and LF-avoidance in a northern caribou population (Saskatchewan Boreal Shield; ~3% of habitat within 500 m of anthropogenic disturbance), we tracked 94 GPS-collared females (2014–2018). Unexpectedly, caribou did not avoid LFs at most scales of observation. Although they responded to vegetation in line with apparent competition, resiliency of conifer-dominated successional trajectories and muted moose-wolf responses to disturbance suggest that poor primary productivity may modulate the strength of DMAC to caribou—including its potential interaction with LFs to influence movements. Before focusing on DMAC as the principal threat to caribou in northern ecoregions, further studies investigating if caribou and predators functionally respond to increasing LF-availability are needed, as it may be most critical for conserving crucial source populations.

Intra-annual Spatiotemporal Dynamics of the Monarch Butterfly (Lepidoptera: Danaidae), Regal Fritillary (Lepidoptera: Heliconiinae), and Their Floral Resources in North Dakota, United States

AbstractMany butterflies in the United States, along with their nectar resources, are declining. Large-scale conservation planning can be challenging, however, when butterflies and their nectar sources exhibit disparate spatiotemporal dynamics. We initiated a multi-year survey on monarchs (Danaus plexippus), regal fritillaries (Speyeria idalia), and floral resources across North Dakota from 2017 to 2019 to understand resource use through space and time. We surveyed three sites in each county in North Dakota, twice a year for 3 yr, for a total of 954 site visits. Our objectives were to 1) identify important floral resources for monarchs and regal fritillaries, 2) determine intra-annual spatial and temporal distributions of the butterflies and their nectar sources, and 3) quantify how floral resources influenced butterfly abundance and interacted with spatiotemporal factors (latitude, longitude, and flight season). Milkweeds (Asclepias spp.), native thistles (Cirsium spp.), and blazing stars (Liatris spp.) were identified as particularly important nectar resources for monarchs and regal fritillaries; all plant and butterfly species exhibited unique spatiotemporal distributions. Monarch abundance at a site was positively related to the availability of flowering milkweeds, and regal fritillary abundance was positively related to the floral availability of native thistles and coneflowers (Echinacea spp.). These relationships were consistent across the spatial and temporal extent of our study, indicating that the butterfly–flower relationships we detected are maintained and relatively consistent across our study region and years. By accounting for spatiotemporal dynamics, we can help elucidate the persistence of butterfly-flower species interactions at large scales and inform conservation efforts for these threatened species.

Quantifying the effects of deforestation and fragmentation on a range-wide conservation plan for jaguars

The impact of extensive changes in land use and climate on species has led to an increasing focus on large-scale conservation planning. However, these plans are often static conservation prescriptions set against a backdrop of rapidly changing environments, which suggests that large-scale information on threats can improve the functionality of planning efforts. Jaguars (Panthera onca) are the focus of a range-wide conservation strategy extending from Mexico to Argentina that consists of jaguar conservation units (JCUs) and modeled corridors. Recent deforestation is a major threat to jaguar populations, but forest loss has not been systematically assessed across the entire jaguar network. In this study, we quantified the amount and rate of deforestation in JCUs and corridors between 2000 and 2012. JCUs lost 37,780km2 forest (0.93%) at an increasing rate of 149.2km2yr−2, corridors lost 45,979km2 (4.43%) at a decreasing rate of 40.1km2yr−2, and levels of forest fragmentation increased in corridors. Protected sections of JCUs and corridors lost less forest than unprotected sections, suggesting efforts to increase protected status of jaguar conservation areas are warranted. Higher deforestation in corridors indicates difficulties in maintaining connectivity of jaguar populations, and suggests the need for increased engagement with communities within corridor landscapes. Assessment of spatial variability of anthropogenic threats within the jaguar network may improve jaguar conservation by informing network prioritization and function.

Potential pitfalls of private initiatives in conservation planning: A case study from Canada's boreal forest

Large-scale conservation planning entails the establishment of protected area networks that retain substantive natural habitat, biodiversity, and functional connectivity, but developing such networks at the spatial extent needed for meeting global targets involves considerable logistical, political, and social challenges. Normally, governments oversee development of protected area networks, but in the absence of political leadership private initiatives may offer a reasonable alternative approach in conservation planning. We review the Canadian Boreal Forest Agreement (CBFA), a private conservation planning initiative established by forestry companies and environmental organizations that suspends permitted logging activities on roughly 29million hectares of boreal forest in Canada. The CBFA is touted as a milestone in conservation planning, multi-stakeholder cooperation, and woodland caribou conservation. Yet, the CBFA: 1) involves public land but excludes federal, provincial and aboriginal governments; 2) is not legally binding or necessarily transferrable upon sale of forest tenures; and 3) exempts industrial activities other than logging. Covering 4.6% of the boreal region of Canada, CBFA land tenures do not include most boreal ecozones and do not conform to standard guidelines for designing effective protected area networks. Further, the CBFA does not anticipate effects of climate change, which by 2080 likely will render land tenures unsuitable for caribou, the flagship species of the agreement. We conclude that private initiatives like the CBFA may constitute positive, initial steps toward large-scale conservation planning, but their successful integration into protected area networks will require scientifically robust and transparent efforts that are more fully coordinated with public initiatives.

Molecular and craniological analysis of leopard,Panthera pardus(Carnivora: Felidae) in Iran: support for a monophyletic clade in Western Asia

As the largest extant cat species in west Asia, the leopard (Panthera pardus) shows high morphological variation, which has led to the description of seven different subspecies in the region. Different investigations have tried to clarify its phylogenetic structure; however, sample size and spatial distribution insufficiently represent the Iranian population, the largest remaining bulk of the Persian leopard (P. p. saxicolor) in the Middle East that probably functioned as a source for the subspecies' range. We examined sequence variation in the mitochondrial NADH-5 gene for 25 leopards from different parts of Iran. Also, we examined 49 adult male skulls to understand the morphological variation of the Iranian leopard population. Our craniometrical results revealed that while no differentiation is seen based on size or shape characteristics from different parts of Iran, larger individuals normally belong to the northern range. Time-calibrated Bayesian phylogenetic analysis suggested that the Iranian female lineage is a monophyletic group that diverged from a group of Asian leopards in the second half of the Pleistocene. Three closely related haplotypes were identified for the entire country: one commonly found haplotype throughout Iran, south Caucasus and Turkmenistan and two localized haplotypes were sequenced from southern Zagros and eastern Alborz. Accordingly, the Persian leopard population in Iran as well as in neighbouring countries can be protected as a large management unit through large-scale conservation planning. Moreover, the available captive stock of the Persian leopard represents an invaluable source for reintroduction for countries interested in restoring their locally extinct population. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 114, 721–736.

Predicting primate local extinctions within “real‐world” forest fragments: A pan‐neotropical analysis

Understanding the main drivers of species extinction in human-modified landscapes has gained paramount importance in proposing sound conservation strategies. Primates play a crucial role in maintaining the integrity of forest ecosystem functions and represent the best studied order of tropical terrestrial vertebrates, yet primate species diverge widely in their responses to forest habitat disturbance and fragmentation. Here, we present a robust quantitative review on the synergistic effects of habitat fragmentation on Neotropical forest primates to pinpoint the drivers of species extinction across a wide range of forest patches from Mexico to Argentina. Presence-absence data on 19 primate functional groups were compiled from 705 forest patches and 55 adjacent continuous forest sites, which were nested within 61 landscapes investigated by 96 studies. Forest patches were defined in terms of their size, surrounding matrix and level of hunting pressure on primates, and each functional group was classified according to seven life-history traits. Generalized linear mixed models showed that patch size, forest cover, level of hunting pressure, home range size and trophic status were the main predictors of species persistence within forest isolates for all functional groups pooled together. However, patterns of local extinction varied greatly across taxa, with Alouatta and Callicebus moloch showing the highest occupancy rates even within tiny forest patches, whereas Brachyteles and Leontopithecus occupied fewer than 50% of sites, even in relatively large forest tracts. Our results uncover the main predictors of platyrrhine primate species extinction, highlighting the importance of considering the history of anthropogenic disturbances, the structure of landscapes, and species life-history attributes in predicting primate persistence in Neotropical forest patches. We suggest that large-scale conservation planning of fragmented forest landscapes should prioritize and set-aside large, well-connected and strictly protected forest reserves to maximize species persistence across the entire spectrum of primate life-history.

Characterizing the diversity of coral reef habitats and fish communities found in a UNESCO World Heritage Site: The strategy developed for Lagoons of New Caledonia

Since 1972, the UNESCO “World Heritage Convention” offers an international canvas for conservation and management that targets areas of high cultural and environmental significance. To support the designation of areas within the 36.000km2 of New Caledonia coral reefs and lagoons as a World Heritage Site, the natural value and diversity of the proposed zones needed to be demonstrated. To exhaustively identify each configuration of shallow habitats, high resolution remote sensing images were used to select the sampling sites. This optimal scheme resulted in the selection of nearly 1300 sampling sites, and was then simplified to render its application realistic. In the final sampling plan, only the most common or the most remarkable coral zones were selected. Following this selection, in situ habitat and fish surveys were conducted in 2006–2008 in five large areas spanning a 600km-long latitudinal gradient. Habitats were described using line-intercept transects in parallel with underwater visual census of indicator and commercial coral reef fish species. We report here on the results achieved in terms of: (i) the actual diversity of coral habitats captured by the remote sensing based sampling strategy, (ii) the different reef fish communities captured from the different sites, and (iii) how well they represent New Caledonia diversity. We discuss the possible generalization of this scheme to other sites, in the context of World Heritage Site selection and for other large-scale conservation planning activities.

Efficient plot-based floristic assessment of tropical forests

The tropical flora remains chronically understudied and the lack of floristic understanding hampers ecological research and its application for large-scale conservation planning. Given scarce resources and the scale of the challenge there is a need to maximize the efficiency of both sampling strategies and sampling units, yet there is little information on the relative efficiency of different approaches to floristic assessment in tropical forests. This paper is the first attempt to address this gap. We repeatedly sampled forests in two regions of Amazonia using the two most widely used plot-based protocols of floristic sampling, and compared their performance in terms of the quantity of floristic knowledge and ecological insight gained scaled to the field effort required. Specifically, the methods are assessed first in terms of the number of person-days required to complete each sample (‘effort’), secondly by the total gain in the quantity of floristic information that each unit of effort provides (‘crude inventory efficiency’), and thirdly in terms of the floristic information gained as a proportion of the target species pool (‘proportional inventory efficiency’). Finally, we compare the methods in terms of their efficiency in identifying different ecological patterns within the data (‘ecological efficiency’) while controlling for effort. There are large and consistent differences in the performance of the two methods. The disparity is maintained even after accounting for regional and site-level variation in forest species richness, tree density and the number of field assistants. We interpret our results in the context of selecting the appropriate method for particular research purposes.

The efficacy of TM satellite imagery for rapid assessment of Chihuahuan xeric habitat intactness for ecoregion-scale conservation planning

A critical step in designing effective conservation landscapes is the identification of relatively intact natural habitats. Satellite remote sensing has been effectively used to distinguish relatively intact and degraded forests at a number of scales. However, the utility of remote sensing data for rapid and cost-effective assessments of habitat intactness across large arid regions has not been adequately tested. To this end, we tested the ability of TM imagery to rapidly discriminate different levels of habitat degradation across large regions of the Chihuahuan Desert. We were able to identify relatively intact habitat in many cases. However, degraded habitat was often misidentified as relatively intact. The use of both mid- and late-season imagery provides some improvement by highlighting phenological differences among the intactness classes. Overall, low vegetation cover and inter- and intra-seasonal variability diminish the utility of TM imagery for large-scale conservation planning in the Chihuahuan Desert.

The efficacy of TM satellite imagery for rapid assessment of Chihuahuan xeric habitat intactness for ecoregion-scale conservation planning

A critical step in designing effective conservation landscapes is the identification of relatively intact natural habitats. Satellite remote sensing has been effectively used to distinguish relatively intact and degraded forests at a number of scales. However, the utility of remote sensing data for rapid and cost-effective assessments of habitat intactness across large arid regions has not been adequately tested. To this end, we tested the ability of TM imagery to rapidly discriminate different levels of habitat degradation across large regions of the Chihuahuan Desert. We were able to identify relatively intact habitat in many cases. However, degraded habitat was often misidentified as relatively intact. The use of both mid- and late-season imagery provides some improvement by highlighting phenological differences among the intactness classes. Overall, low vegetation cover and inter- and intra-seasonal variability diminish the utility of TM imagery for large-scale conservation planning in the Chihuahuan Desert.