Large Portion Sizes Research Articles

Longitudinal associations between psychosomatic and emotional status and selected food portion sizes in European children and adolescents: IDEFICS/I.Family study

This study aims to investigate the influence of psychosomatic and emotional status on food portion sizes (PSs) consumption from high energy-dense food groups in European children and adolescents. We hypothesized that psychosomatic and emotional status would have a significant association with the PS selection of energy-dense food. The study included 7355 children aged between 2 and 9.9 years at baseline (T0) (48.8% females); 3869 after 2 years (T1) (48.2% females), and 2971 (51.8% females) after 6 years of follow-up (T3). Psychosomatic and emotional status were measured using emotional well-being during the last week score (KINDL) and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. PS was calculated from daily food intake recorded in 24-hour dietary recalls. The associations between emotional status indicators and PS from selected energy-dense food groups were assessed by multilevel linear regression models. In the cross-sectional analysis, we observed that higher KINDL scores were linked to lower PS consumption from sweet bakery products and savory snacks in both genders. Moreover, we found that adolescent females with high emotional and peer problem scores tended to consume larger PS of carbohydrate-rich and sugar-fatty food items (P < .017). Longitudinally, higher peer problem scores were associated with increased PS from bread and rolls, margarine and lipids, and dairy products in all genders and age groups (P< .017). In adolescents, psychosomatic and emotional status could be a trigger for consuming large PS from carbohydrate-rich and sugar-fatty energy-dense foods. Thus, nutritional interventions should consider emotional status to decrease unhealthy dietary habits in children and adolescents.

Food portion sizes: trends and drivers in an obesogenic environment.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults has increased worldwide. A strong environmental factor contributing to the obesity epidemic is food portion size (PS). This review evaluates the current evidence linking food PS to obesity, examines the effects of PS on energy intake (EI), and discusses the drivers of food PS selection. The leading causes of the rise in PS include globalisation, intensive farming methods, the impact of World War II, due to shortage of staple foods, and the notion of 'waste not, want not'. Large PS of energy-dense foods may stimulate overconsumption, leading to high EI levels. However, the studies have not shown a cause-and-effect relationship, due to confounding factors. Important mechanisms explaining the attractiveness of larger PS leading to higher EI levels are value for money, portion distortion, labels on food packaging, and tableware. Consumers depend on external rather than internal PS cues to guide consumption, irrespective of satiety levels. Further research is recommended on food consumption patterns to inform policymakers and provide information and insights about changes in diet.

Exposure to multiple sources of accessible, cheap, energy dense fast foods in a deprived community

Abstract This study assesses the levels of fats, including trans-fatty acids, and salt in common takeaway fast foods in a deprived urban community in the West Midlands England and implications in the context of the spatial distribution of fast food takeaways. The results of the compositional analysis of over 250 take out foods were compared with established and derived standards. 70% of products exceeded the recommendation that a meal should contain less than 30% of a Guideline Daily Allowance (GDA). More than half exceeded 50% GDA for at least one metric including 81% of all analyses for saturated fatty acids (SFA). Over 30% samples exceeded the children's GDA for total fat or SFA. 27% of salt analyses exceeded the GDA. For poorer social groups avoiding the expense of cooking entirely is a cost effective way of sourcing calories. These are the same populations experiencing high levels of unemployment and limited opportunities to develop businesses. People in Sandwell are exposed to large portion sizes and high levels of fats and salt in takeaway foods. Given this population's limited options to break out of a highly compromising environment of living simultaneously in a ‘swamp’ of unhealthy, readily accessible and cheap takeaways, and a ‘desert’ of healthy options, an innovative package of interventions is required. There are strong political, social and economic reasons for not considering a blanket restriction on takeaways given the role such businesses play in entry-level employment and business opportunities for disadvantaged communities Rather than trying to ban such foods, a more realistic and effective intervention is to challenge and change what's on offer, how much is on offer, and how it's been prepared, ‘change the menu not the venue', while at the same time enabling communities to access, prepare and cook good quality ingredients for a healthier diet. Key messages • This population is living simultaneously in a ‘swamp’ of unhealthy, readily accessible and cheap takeaways, and a ‘desert’ of healthy options. • A package of interventions is required including local planning and regulatory powers, educational interventions and working with industry to promote healthy and affordable food preparation techniques.

Portion size affects food selection in an immersive virtual reality buffet and is related to measured intake in laboratory meals varying in portion size

A crucial step for validating the utility of an immersive virtual reality (iVR) buffet to study eating behavior is to determine whether variations in food characteristics such as portion size (PS) are relevant predictors of food selection in an iVR buffet. We tested whether manipulating PS in an iVR buffet affects the weight of food selected, and whether this response to PS is similar to participants' measured intake when PS varies at laboratory meals. In a randomized crossover design, 91 adults (18-71 y; 64 females; BMI = 25.3 ± 5.7) used their iVR remote to select lunch and dinner portions from an iVR buffet before consuming a standardized lab meal at two visits separated by one week. The PS in the iVR buffet and lab meals varied between a standard PS and a large PS. This design enabled comparisons of PS effects between iVR and lab settings, despite the scale difference in food weight between the environments. Portion size significantly affected food selection and food intake (p < 0.001). Subjects selected an additional 350 g in iVR and consumed an additional 154 g of food in the lab meals when offered the large portion compared to the small portion. The effect of PS showed a similar percentage increase in iVR (36.5%) and lab meals (39.2%). There was no significant difference in the effect of PS between iVR and lab meals after accounting for scale differences in food weight between the environments. The response to PS was not influenced by subject characteristics such as body mass index, sex, or age. These results demonstrate the utility of iVR for replicating real-world eating behaviors and enhancing our understanding of the intricate dynamics of food-related behaviors in a variety of contexts.

Study the presence of tetramethylthiuram disulfide residue in three selected microgreen species

Microgreens are tender leafy vegetables which are popular among consumers due to their pleasing colors, textures, flavors, and high nutritive values. Microgreens are generally consumed fresh and in relatively large portion sizes. Tender cotyledons of carrot, beetroot, lettuce, amaranthus, cabbage etc. are popular as microgreens among local consumers at present. All most all exotic vegetable seeds found in domestic markets are treated with fungicide (Thiram: Tetramethylthiuram disulfide) thus pose a health risk. Therefore, this study was conducted to identify the presence of fungicide residue in 3 microgreen varieties Amaranthus (Amaranthus viridis; var Red Thampala), Carrot (Daucus carota subsp. sativus; var New Kurodaand and Mungbean (Vigna radiata; var MI 5). Seeds were sawn at 125 g/m2 rate on trays with a coir dust medium and 30-36 LUX light was supplied continuously. Temperature, pH and RH of the growth medium were maintained at 28–30 °C, 5.5–6.0 and 90–95% while 70–78 % RH and 30–34 °C temperature were maintained as environmental conditions. Height at harvesting of 10 – 14 days old carrot and amaranthus microgreens were 7.5 cm while that of mungbean was 14 cm. Chlorophyll content and fungicide residue were analyzed in harvested microgreens and microbial growth of growth medium was checked. Amaranthuss and carrot had 1.1 CCI and mungbean had 2.4 CCI values as average chlorophyll contents at harvesting. According to FTIR analysis thiram presented only in carrot microgreens and further quantifications are on progress. Mean results of standard plate count of growth medium were 10 CFU/ml in amaranthus and 11 CFU/ml in carrot and mungbean.

An Evaluation of Glycaemic Load in the Assortments of Fufu in Ghana

Knowledge about the glycaemic load of a food is very important in minimizing the prevalence of diabetes and other Non-Communicable Diseases. The purpose of this study was to determine the glycaemic load of the different varieties of fufu in the Wenchi municipality in Ghana. Quantitatively, the study adopted a crossover experimental research design. The research was carried out in Wenchi, the capital of the Wenchi Municipal Assembly, in the Bono Region. Convenience and purposive sampling techniques were used to select ten (10) healthy adults for blood glucose tests in this study. Materials used for the study were Fresh cassava, plantain, yam, and cocoyam. Descriptive analysis was used in analysing and interpretation of the data. Values were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Statistical significance was set at p&lt;0.05. Statistical analysis was performed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) 20.0. Proximate analysis of the study concluded that, plantain fufu contained the least carbohydrate content among the three fufu mixtures. The study also revealed that all fufu combinations had a high glycaemic load and this is as a result of the large portion size of fufu that is eaten at a serving. The glycaemic load of fufu combinations showed no significant difference, however, looking at the actual values, there are differences in them which should not be overlooked. It is recommended that consumers of fufu can eat any of the three mixtures of fufu, but there will be the need to take a smaller portion size of the fufu since a larger size can have adverse effects on their blood glucose level. It is also recommended that in other for fufu to be digested well and glucose to be absorbed easily, especially yam fufu, consumers should make sure to eat fufu at least about five hours before going to bed. It is recommended that nutritionists, dieticians, and diet therapists can as well recommend yam fufu and cocoyam fufu for diabetics and prediabetics, to bring about varieties in their diet.

Designing for downsizing: Home-based barriers and facilitators to reduce portion sizes for children.

Evidence confirms that parents know that they should limit non-core foods for their children since these tend to be high in energy density (HED), fat, salt and sugar. However, it is unclear how knowledge of portion size limits, such as the 100 kcal guide from Public Health England are applied in practice. To observe in real-time children’s home food environment related to portion control and to explore with parents their reported portion size strategies, a mixed methods study was designed. Families with children aged 1–5 years were recruited (n = 21) to a three-part study: (1) to complete questionnaires and interviews on household food intake and portion control; (2) to report daily food intake for 4 days (n = 13) for one parent and their child(ren); (3) to observe home-based food provisioning via videorecording during dinner, breakfast and snack time (n = 6). Although the problem of large portion sizes of HED foods was recognised by mothers, strategies to downsize portions were not necessarily applied at home, as revealed in home observations and diaries. A mismatch between what was observed at home, what was reported in food diaries and what was said in interviews became apparent for some families. Mothers reported the need for greater support and guidance to downsize HED foods since they relied on pre-packaging as a guide to intake. Education and engagement were identified as important parameters for downsizing by mothers. One strategy which could be explored and applied by manufacturers is packaging design to faciliate the 100 kcal guidance using physical and engaging ways to assist parents in downsizing HED foods for their children. To facilitate effective government communication, innovative packaging design can be used to convey clear guidance and to tailor portion size messages for children. Packaging design, alongside government recommendations, can support parents’ goals to achieve healthy eating and can reinforce guidance for portion norms through innovation involving learning, playful engagement, and interaction.

Less is more: Mindfulness, portion size, and candy eating pleasure

Eating candy is pleasurable. Yet, eating candy in large quantities is not recommended. Manufacturers have consistently produced small portion sizes of a variety of candy. While consuming small versus large portion sizes is healthier, do people experience the same amount of pleasure from eating a small portion and does it matter how it is eaten? In a pre-registered study, we examined how candy portion size and mindful eating affected eating-related pleasure. Participants (N = 301) were randomly assigned to eat a small (113 calories) or large (210 calories) portion of a popular candy, Reese’s Peanut Butter Cups. They were also randomly assigned to eat the candy in a regular or mindful manner. We examined eating-related pleasure after consumption. We found that eating pleasure did not differ between portion sizes in the regular eating condition, but in the mindful eating condition, participants experienced more pleasure when eating the small versus large portion. Furthermore, participants experienced more guilt after eating the large versus small portion in the regular eating condition, but portion size did not affect feelings of guilt in the mindful eating condition. An awareness of such effects could encourage people to reduce the portion sizes of the candy they consume.

Acceptability, Usability and Weight Loss Outcomes in a Randomized Cross-Over Study of Commercially Available Portion Size Tools in an Overweight South Asian Community.

South Asian women living in the UK are particularly at high risk of obesity-related complications, such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Exposure to large portion sizes is a risk factor for obesity. Specifically designed tableware helps individuals to manage weight by controlling food portion sizes. Thirty-one (n = 31) overweight or obese South Asian adult women participated in a randomised cross-over trial aimed to assess the efficacy, acceptance, and weight change of two guided/calibrated commercially available portion control tools (Utensil set and Crockery Set) used in free-living conditions. Data on acceptance, perceived changes in portion size, frequency, and meal type was collected using paper questionnaires and 3-day diet diaries. Scores describing acceptance, ease of use, and perceived effectiveness were derived from five-point Likert scales from which binary indicators (high/low) were analysed for significance using multivariate variance analysis for repeated measurements. A reduction in BMI was observed at each point of measurement (p = 0.007). For overall tool use, the crockery set scored higher in all areas of acceptance, ease of use, and perceived efficacy for all comparisons. Self-selected portion sizes increased for salads and decreased for cooking oil and breakfast cereals with both tools. Further research to scale up and evaluate similar weight management interventions for this group is warranted.

Dynamic changes in hedonic and emotional responses to fruit varying in portion size

The average intake of fruits across the world is lower than recommended. This lower intake of fruit is surprising as fruit is a typically liked food, and a higher liking is generally associated with a higher intake. The question then arises as to why do levels of fruit intake remain lower than recommended. This study investigated dynamic changes in hedonic and emotional responses to a fresh fruit salad consisting of pineapple, strawberries and blueberries. In a within-subjects design, 45 participants (aged 26.7 ± 4.6 years) randomly consumed three portion sizes of food (i.e. small, regular and large) across three sessions. The foods were divided into a first and last section of consumption. Before and after consumption, hunger and liking were measured. Throughout consumption, emotional responses were measured with Temporal Dominance of Emotions (TDE). Results showed that liking increased from before consumption till after consumption for all portions. The emotional profiles (TDE) of small, regular, and the first section of the large portion were dominated by happy and relaxed. However, the emotional profile for the last section of the large portion size, also showed negative emotions to become dominant, i.e. bored. These results show that large portions of fresh fruit salad may be less enjoyed by consumers as compared to eating a small or regular portion. This implies that consuming smaller portions of fruit on several occasions across the day, may serve the goal of meeting the recommended daily fruit intake better than eating a large portion of fruit in a single occasion. These findings contribute to a better understanding of how consumers perceive and respond to changes in portion size, and allow to address the effectiveness of portion size strategies for consumer health and wellbeing.

Associations between food portion sizes, insulin resistance, VO2 max and metabolic syndrome in European adolescents: The HELENA study

Background and aimsThis study aims to examine the associations of food portion size (PS) with markers of insulin resistance (IR) and clustered of metabolic risk score in European adolescents. MethodsA total of 495 adolescents (53.5% females) from the Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence (HELENA) study were included. The association between PS from food groups and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) index, VO2 max, and metabolic risk score was assessed by multilinear regression analysis adjusting for several confounders. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to determine the mean differences of food PS from food groups by HOMA-IR cutoff categories by using maternal education as a covariable. ResultsLarger PS from vegetables in both gender and milk, yoghurt, and milk beverages in males were associated with higher VO2 max, while larger PS from margarines and vegetable oils were associated with lower VO2 max (p < 0.05). Males who consumed larger PS from fish and fish products; meat substitutes, nuts, and pulses; cakes, pies, and biscuits; and sugar, honey, jams, and chocolate have a higher metabolic risk score (p < 0.05). Males with lower HOMA-IR cutoff values consumed larger PS from vegetables, milk, yoghurt, and milk beverages (p < 0.05). Females with lower HOMA-IR cutoff values consumed larger PS from breakfast cereals, while those with higher HOMA-IR cutoff values consumed larger PS from butter and animal fats (p = 0.018). ConclusionThe results show that larger PS from dairy products, cereals, and high energy dense foods are a significant determinant of IR and VO2 max, and larger PS from food with higher content of sugar were associated with higher metabolic risk score.

Investigating the Association between Unhealthy Dietary Habits and Obesity among Libyan Adults.

Background: Although an increasing number of studies have reported on nutrition transition and unhealthy eating habits (UEHs) worldwide, there is a paucity of studies on UEHs in the Arab region, particularly in Libya. Aim: This study investigated the associations between obesity among Libyan adults and UEHs. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted at the five major districts in Benghazi, Libya. A multistage cluster sampling strategy was implemented to choose and recruit Libyan adults. Anthropometric measurements were gathered by highly qualified nurses, using the Segmental Body Composition Monitor and a portable Stadiometer. The study used and adapted the two Self-administered questionnaires: the WHO STEPS Instrument and eating behaviors linked with obesity questionnaire. Results: Among a total of 401 participants who were successfully recruited in this study, 253 (63%) were female (aged 20–65 years), the response rate achieved was 78%. The prevalence of obesity amongst Libyan adults was estimated to be 42.4%. The results revealed the presence of a significant association between obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) and five UEHs for Libyan men and six UEHs for Libyan women. For Libyan men, an association was found between obesity and the following five explanatory factors: fast food intake in a day and a week, which were (OR: 2.52, 95% CI: 4.04–12.32) and (OR: 4.65, 95% CI: 1.04–9.46), respectively; large food portion sizes consumed at one sitting (OR: 19.54, 95% CI: 1.41–27.74); a high frequency of skipping breakfast either in a typical day or a week, which were (OR: 0.02, 95% CI: 0.01–0.77) and (OR: 0.03, 95% CI: 0.01–0.24), respectively. For Libyan women, a significant association was found between obesity and the following six explanatory factors: fast food intake in a day and a week, which were (OR: 2.14, 95% CI: 3.32–11.12) and (OR: 5.5, 95% CI: 1.88–16.11), respectively; intake of sugar-sweetened beverages in a typical week (OR: 4.02, 95% CI: 1.35–11.99); and large food portion sizes consumed at one sitting at one sitting (OR: 3.40, 95% CI: 1.18–9.84); and a high frequency of skipping breakfast either in a typical day or a week, which were (OR: 0.11, 95% CI: 0.03–0.43) and (OR: 0.12, 95% CI: 0.08–0.63), respectively. Conclusions: The findings of the study reveal areas of action for Libyan researchers, clinicians, policymakers, and government officials about UEHs in the Libyan context. This could inform establishing and developing new interventions for preventing and controlling the obesity epidemic through food system improvements.

Lower Energy-Dense Ready Meal Consumption Affects Self-Reported Appetite Ratings with No Effect on Subsequent Food Intake in Women.

Slimming World (SW), a commercial weight management organisation, has designed a range of low energy-dense ready meals (LEDRMs) in line with their programme. This randomised crossover study compared commercially available equicaloric ready meals differing in energy density on satiety and food intake. It was hypothesised that the LEDRM would reduce energy intake (EI) whilst increasing fullness and reducing hunger compared to higher energy-dense ready meal (HEDRM, control). A total of 26 female participants (aged 18–65 years; body mass index of 28.8 ± 3.0 kg·m−2) attended two test days. The participants ate a standard breakfast, and four hours later, ate either a LEDRM or HEDRM at lunch. EI was measured four hours later at an ad libitum tea. Satiety measurements were recorded throughout the day using visual analogue scales and a weighed food diary was completed for the remainder of the day. The results revealed that the LEDRM reduced hunger and increased fullness (both p < 0.001). There was no difference in EI at the evening meal between the ready meals (p > 0.05), however, during the whole LEDRM testing day, the participants consumed significantly less fat (7.1%) and saturated fat (3.6%) (both p < 0.01), but significantly more carbohydrates, sugars, fibre, protein, and salt (all p < 0.01). The results indicate that the participants felt more satiated after consuming ready meals of the same energy content but larger portion size. Despite no significant difference in short-term EI between the ready meals, the results indicated that the LEDRM produced beneficial subjective satiety responses and, therefore, can help to improve the nutritional content of meals i.e., reduce saturated fat consumption.

How Do French Parents Determine Portion Sizes for Their Pre-Schooler? A Qualitative Exploration of the Parent-Child Division of Responsibility and Influencing Factors.

Large portion sizes can make children overeat, alter their self-regulation abilities and induce weight gain. However, little is known about how parents determine portion sizes for their children. Using semi-structured interviews with 5 fathers and 32 mothers of pre-schoolers, this study examined French parents’ food portioning practices. The division of responsibility between parent and child in deciding portion sizes was explored, as well as the influencing factors and possible sources of information. Parents described a wide range of practices. For most, determining portion sizes is an intuitive action that depends on habits and mainly arises from experiences with feeding their child and his/her appetitive traits. Few parents grant autonomy to their child for portioning and serving food, especially for the first serving. Many influencing factors were identified, including child-related (e.g., appetite, food preferences), parent-related (e.g., avoiding food waste), and external factors (e.g., influence of siblings, French food culture). Most parents do not search for information/recommendations to guide their practices. Stimulating optimal self-regulation of eating in children is important and parents can play a crucial role in this. This study identified barriers and facilitators to guide parents in providing appropriate portion sizes and help include children in this decision process.

Perspectives of Urban Ghanaian Adolescents on Healthy Eating Habits

Abstract Objectives Adolescents are vulnerable to diet-related health risks as they experience major life changes alongside food environment changes. In Ghana, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are rising, and there is a need to understand what, how and why adolescents eat the way they do. This study explored perspectives of adolescents about healthy and unhealthy eating and relationships to portion sizes. Methods The Measurement, Evaluation, Accountability, and Leadership Support for NCDs (MEALS4NCDs) Project is measuring the nature and extent of unhealthy food marketing to support public sector actions to create healthier food environments for Ghanaian children. In July-August 2020, 48 interviews with students (14–17 years old) in six districts across the Greater Accra Region were conducted in schools. Interviews were done in English, audio recorded, and transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were coded with NVivo12 using a thematic analysis. Results All students demonstrated basic nutrition knowledge and conceptualized healthy eating as “not eating too much”, “a balanced diet,” “not eating late,” and “not eating cold foods.” Connections between NCDs and consumption of foods high in fat, sugar, and salt were rarely made. All students consumed items contrary to what was described as a healthy diet. Students expressed food safety as indicative of healthy food, emphasizing food prepared in a “hygienic environment by a hygienic person,” “a hot temperature,” and “covered.” Participants did not understand portion sizes beyond “too much of anything is bad” and most stated contexts where they would consume smaller or larger portion sizes, such as around strangers (less) or unsure of next meal (more). Participants admitted that peer pressure and food advertising claims informed their food choices and showed minimal knowledge of marketing tactics. Students voiced their limited agency in food choice decisions, citing financial and cultural constraints. Conclusions Students had some nutrition knowledge but limited agency to apply it in daily food choices. Interventions should include educating students and parents on diet-related NCDs and deceptive marketing tactics that promote unhealthy foods. Funding Sources International Development Research Centre's Food, Environment &amp; Health Programme, IDRC-Canada. Office of the Vice President for Research, University of South Carolina.

The Association between Portion Sizes from High-Energy-Dense Foods and Body Composition in European Adolescents: The HELENA Study.

Obesity prevalence has been simultaneously increasing with high consumption of large food portion sizes (PS). However, there is scarce information on PS of energy-dense (ED) foods as a potential risk factor of obesity in adolescents. In the present study, we investigate the association between the PS of the most ED foods and body composition. A sample of 1889 adolescents (54.4% females) from the Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence cross-sectional multicenter study (HELENA–CSS) study were included. Most ED foods (e.g., cheese) were selected according to higher fat and/or sugar content and low fiber and water. Linear and ordinal logistic regression models were adjusted for age, physical activity, total energy intake (TEI), and socioeconomic status (SES). Analysis was performed both in those adolescents reporting plausible energy intake according to the approach of Goldberg et al. and in the whole sample. In male plausible reporters, PS from “breakfast cereals” showed a significant and positive association with BMI (β = 0.012; 0.048). PS from “carbonated soft drinks” in males (OR = 1.001; 95% CI 1.000; 1.002) and “bread and rolls” in females (OR = 1.002; 95% CI 1.000; 1.004) were associated with higher probability of having obesity, while “sweet bakery products” were associated with lower probability of having obesity (OR = 0.996; 95% CI 0.991; 0.999) in females. The present study suggests association between PS of ED foods and obesity in European adolescents. Prospective studies are needed to examine the effect of prolonged exposure to large PS and obesity development.

What you say and what you do: Exploring the link between consumers’ perception of portion size norms and reported behaviour for consumption of sweets and crisps

Portion size decisions are embedded in a complex system of individual, socio-economic, and environmental factors. The objective of this study was to explore consumers’ descriptive and injunctive portion size norms and how these norms are related to reported behaviour and further to psychological eating attitudes. The study includes data from two consumer samples (n = 1020). Respondents completed four tasks where they chose the portion size they normally eat, the appropriate portion size, the portion size they would like to eat, and the portion size they believed others like them would eat from eight pictures varying in portion sizes. After this, respondents’ psychological eating attitudes were measured. Consumers chose larger portions of both sweets and crisps than they perceive as appropriate, but at the same time they reported to choose smaller portions than they would like to eat or what they believe others at the same age and gender eat. We identified two clusters based on respondents’ psychological eating attitudes. Those with higher versus lower scores on emotional eating and disinhibition reported not only larger portion sizes, but also a higher norm for an appropriate portion size and a higher gap between what they reported to eat and what is appropriate to eat. Interestingly, the chosen portion size for the high scoring cluster did not differ from those they reported other people to choose. This indicates that consumers that are vulnerable to emotional eating or losing control over eating when exposed to food cues have less bias in thinking that they eat less than others like them would eat.

Grandparental dietary provision, feeding practices and feeding styles when caring for preschool‐aged grandchildren: A systematic mixed methods review

SummaryGrandparents are frequently relied upon to care for their preschool‐aged grandchildren. These early years are a crucial age in the development of dietary habits and preferences. This review aims to determine grandparental dietary provision, feeding practices and feeding styles when caring for their preschool‐aged grandchildren. Medline, PsycInfo and Web of Science were searched in January 2020. A systematic mixed methods approach was used to synthesize the qualitative (n = 13) and quantitative (n = 7) articles describing grandparents' feeding styles (n = 9), feeding practices (n = 14) and dietary provision (n = 18). Grandparents are serving large portion sizes and encouraging their grandchildren to eat frequently. Results are mixed for the types of foods provided; grandparents provide discretionary foods high in sugar and fat, and some also choose more expensive core foods as treats (e.g., berries). Grandparents engage in feeding practices that promote healthy eating (e.g., creating a healthy feeding environment) and promote autonomy and independence (e.g., considering their grandchild's preferences). However, they also use some coercive feeding practices (e.g., using food as a reward) and may be using indulgent feeding styles, which can be conducive to obesogenic dietary intakes. Interventions targeting grandparents could be an effective way to improve dietary‐related health outcomes in young children.

Predictors of vegetable consumption in children and adolescents: Analyses of the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008-2017).

Children's vegetable consumption is generally below national recommendations in the UK. This study examined predictors of vegetable intake by children aged 1.5-18 years using counts and portion sizes derived from four-day UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey food diaries. Data from 6,548 children were examined using linear and logit multilevel models. Specifically, we examined whether demographic variables predicted vegetable consumption, whether environmental context influenced portion sizes of vegetables consumed and which food groups predicted the presence (or absence) of vegetables at an eating occasion (EO). A larger average daily intake of vegetables (g) was predicted by age, ethnicity, equivalized income, variety of vegetables eaten and average energy intake per-day (R2 = 0.549). At a single EO, vegetables were consumed in larger portion sizes at home, with family members and at evening mealtimes (Conditional R2 = 0.308). Within EOs, certain configurations of food groups such as carbohydrates and protein predicted higher odds of vegetables being present (OR: 12.85, 95% CI: 9.42-17.54); whereas foods high in fats, sugars and salt predicted a lower likelihood of vegetable presence (OR: 0.03, 95% CI: 0.02-0.04). Vegetables were rarely eaten alone without other food groups. These findings demonstrate that only one portion of vegetables was eaten per-day (median) and this was consumed at a single EO, therefore falling below recommendations. Future research should investigate ways to encourage vegetable intake at times when vegetables are not regularly eaten, such as for breakfast and as snacks, whilst considering which other, potentially competing, foods are presented alongside vegetables.

Larger serving size and seasoning’s role in consumer behaviors toward vegetables

A diet rich in vegetables provides many nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and fiber; as a result, eating vegetables could reduce the risk of chronic diseases. However, very few Americans consume enough vegetables daily, and average intake falls significantly below national recommendations. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of seasoning and increased portion sizes on vegetable consumption in a US adult population. An observational study was conducted in a commercial cafeteria that provided options of steamed or seasoned green beans, broccoli, cauliflower, and carrots (n = 890). The portion size was 8-oz, double the standard vegetable size (4-oz). Participants returned 527 surveys with information regarding vegetable choice, liking, and demographics. Leftover bowls were collected for waste analysis. According to binomial tests, significantly more people purchased the seasoned vegetables over steamed (p < 0.001); in detail, the same trend was observed with the purchasing data of seasoned green beans, broccoli, and cauliflower (p < 0.001 for each vegetable type). Vegetable likings were high and similar across all vegetables and cooking methods with an average of 7.3 (9 = like extremely). Overall, 8-oz (226.8 g) servings resulted in 16.59 mean g waste and 210.21 mean g of consumption. To conclude, cooking vegetables with herbs and spices was well accepted by the adult population as was a larger portion size.