Larger Farm Size Research Articles

Challenges of agricultural adaptation to climate change

Purpose – Climate change is perhaps the most serious environmental threat to agriculture in Africa, because of its impact on pre- and post-harvest agricultural productivity. The purpose of this study is to provide empirical information on the challenges of cassava post-harvest adaptation to climate change. Design/methodology/approach – The study was conducted in two randomly selected states of southeast Nigeria. Data collection was done in two phases; first, there was a rapid rural appraisal and then a detailed survey using a questionnaire administered to 320 randomly selected cassava processors, 40 from each of eight randomly selected cassava farming communities. Findings – The respondents were predominantly women, who process, and grow cassava. The factors affecting their level of vulnerability were gender, household size and farm size. While women were more vulnerable than men, households with greater number of persons and/or larger farm size were less vulnerable. Women's vulnerability declined from the 25th income quantile through the 50th to the 75th while the positive effect of farm and household size increased through the same trend. Education was only positively important for the 75th income quantile. The factors constraining adaptation were scarcity of processing inputs, institutional, water and poverty constraints. Originality/value – Available literature show that most of the recent studies on climate change and agriculture have tended to concentrate on pre-harvest. Ozor et al. studied barriers to climate change adaptation among farm households of southern Nigeria. Enete and Onyekuru studied empirical evidence of challenges of agricultural adaptation to climate change, also among farmers of southeast Nigeria. Enete and Amusa presented a literature survey of challenges of agricultural adaptation to climate change. This study is, not only commodity specific, but also focused on post-harvest.

A whole-farm profitability analysis of organic and conventional cropping systems

Previous studies have found that organic crop production in the midwestern United States can be more profitable than conventional crop production. However, these studies have failed to consider potential differences in farm size between the two systems. If an organic crop rotation cannot be managed on as large an area as a conventional rotation given the same resources, a per-hectare profitability advantage for the organic system would not necessarily translate into a whole-farm profitability advantage.This paper uses management data from a long-term cropping systems trial to estimate the maximum farm size for a conventional corn–soybean rotation and an organic corn–soybean–oat/alfalfa–alfalfa rotation, subject to appropriate yield penalties for management delays and three different machinery complement scenarios. Using these farm size results we estimate whole-farm net returns for each system and then compare the estimated distributions of net returns using stochastic dominance criteria.The results of the farm size model show that under the two largest machinery complement scenarios the conventional corn–soybean rotation can be managed on a larger area than the organic rotation, given equal labor endowments. The smallest machinery complement scenario results in equal farm sizes for both systems. Estimated machinery costs per hectare are lower and whole-farm net returns are higher for larger farms under both cropping systems. However, for each machinery complement scenario, average whole-farm net returns are higher for the organic system than the conventional system, despite the larger farm size under the conventional system for the two largest machinery complements.Stochastic dominance analysis for a baseline scenario with full organic price premiums and no reductions in observed organic yields indicates that risk averse farmers would prefer the organic rotation over the conventional rotation for each of the three machinery complements. Sensitivity analysis shows that reductions in organic yields from those achieved in the experimental trial and reductions in price premiums received for organic crops make the conventional rotation more competitive but still not dominant for all risk averse producers.

Area And Diversity Of A Crop Reflects The Diversity Of Others

This study was carried out to relate the diversity of one crop in terms of number of landraces and farm area with the diversity of other crop. Information collected during baseline survey of in-situ global project (1999) on three crops namely rice, finger millet and sponge gourd in Jumla, Kaski and Bara of Nepal were used. Farm area of each variety and number of landraces grown by sampled household were used for F-test, regression and chi-square analyses to test the diversity of one crop with respect to other. Households having large number of landraces of finger millet maintained large number of rice landraces. Households maintaining different landraces of sponge gourd and finger millet showed a relation with their farm area allotted to rice landraces. Households having large area for rice cultivation maintained a large number of rice landraces in all the sites. The analyses showed that the farmers growing diversity in one crop are more likely to grow diversity in other crops. Similarly, if area in a household allotted to a particular crop species is large, there is chance of growing high diversity of the crop species. Households having large farm size and maintaining high diversity of a crop species may be target farmers for genetic resources management. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment Vol:13, Jun.2012, Page 5-8 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/aej.v13i0.7581

Repayment Performance among Cassava and Yam Farmers under Nigerian Agricultural Bank Smallholder Loan Scheme in Cross River State, Nigeria

This study analyzed credit worthiness and loan repayment performance of cassava and yam farmers in cross river state. Specifically, the study assessed credit worthiness of borrowers, identified factors that discriminate between credit worthy and non credit worthy farmers and analyzed factors that influence the farmers’ ability to loan repayment. Purposive and multistage random techniques were used in selecting respondents from which primary data were collected using questionnaires. A total of 150 crop farmers were used in the study. Method of data analysis utilized were means, frequencies, percentages, discriminant analysis and the multiple regression analysis. The results revealed that only 56% of the respondents were creditworthy. Also, farmers with better educational level, larger farm sizes, longer years of farming, proper loan supervision, and low total operating expenditure to income ratio were credit worthy farmers. While farmers with lower loan to asset ratio were said to be non credit worthy. The results of the linear regression model showed that farmers with higher educational level, larger loan amount, and adequate supervision repaid their loans more. An increase in these variables increased their repayment ability. While farmers with longer years of farming, and those whose loans were disbursed late repaid less of their loans. An increase in these variables decreased their repayment ability . The study recommended that more supervision should be exercised on loan beneficiaries to encourage prompt repayment of loan. The bank should

Occupational Injury and Disease Incidence and Risk Factors in Finnish Agriculture Based on 5-Year Insurance Records

ABSTRACT The aim of this retrospective cohort study was to evaluate the incidence of and risk factors for compensated occupational injuries and diseases in agriculture. The study population consisted of 78,679 Finnish farmers, spouses, and salaried family members covered by mandatory workers' compensation insurance. This population had a total of 24,424 occupational injuries and 1684 diseases from 2000 to 2004. In the 5-year period, 20.2% of the population had (one or more) injuries and 2.0% had occupational diseases. Multiple claims were common particularly among livestock producers. Using Poisson regression analyses, we identified several personal and farm-related risk factors, with relative risk estimates ranging from 1.07 to 3.08 for injuries and from 1.45 to 3.01 for diseases. Cattle-intensive geographic regions, occupational health service membership, large farm size, and farming alone were identified as risk factors for both outcomes. Further, male gender, higher number of insurance years, and residing on the farm were among risk factors for injury. These risk factors identified from a large longitudinal data set can be considered for developing and targeting interventions for farmers at highest risk of occupational injury and disease.

Consumer attitudes to different pig production systems: a study from mainland China

In many countries consumers have shown an increasing interest to the way in which food products are being produced. This study investigates Chinese consumers’ attitudes towards different pig production systems by means of a conjoint analysis. While there has been a range of studies on Western consumers’ attitudes to various forms of food production, little is known about the level of Chinese consumers’ attitudes. A cross-sectional survey was carried out with 472 participants in 6 Chinese cities. Results indicate that Chinese consumers prefer industrial pig production systems, where traditional pig breeds are raised, over large-scale and small family farms. Farms with maximum attention to food safety, which furthermore can provide lean meat with consistent quality, are also preferred. Imported pig breeds and tasty but variable meat were rejected. A 3-cluster solution found that consumers from cluster 1 focus almost exclusively on the food safety aspect (food safety focused). Consumers from cluster 2 (indifferent) show weak overall attitudes to pig production systems in general. Cluster 3 (industrial production oriented) stands out by being very positive about industrial, large-size farms and consistent quality. From a Chinese consumer’s perspective, the industrial approach seems to represent values such as achievement and evolution, as well as quality and safety, since pig production is moving away from low-cost, low-quality, and low-safety family-scale systems. A complex set of rural and environmental development, quality aspects, and food safety measures are challenges that must be met by the stakeholders of pig production systems in China.

An analysis of survey data by size of the breeding herd for the reproductive management practices of North American sow farms

A survey was performed to assess whether reproductive management differed among small-sized (Sm, <500 sows), medium-sized (M, 501 to 2,000 sows), and large-sized (Lg, 2,001 to 8,000 sows) farms (n=113). Farms with 501 to 4000 sows/barn were most frequent with sows kept in stalls on 90% of farms. More Lg farms (P<0.05) functioned as breed to wean and more Sm and M as farrow to finish. More Sm and Lg farms weaned at >21 d, whereas M farms were more likely to wean at 18 to 21 d (P<0.05). More Lg farms had farrowing rates above 89% than Sm and M farms (P<0.05), and culling rates above 40% were more frequent on M and Lg farms than on S. On M and Lg farms, sows were bred in larger batches, using lower person to sow ratios, and with more people required than on Sm farms (P<0.05). More (P<0.05) M and Lg farms spent time moving sows and on records, but hours devoted to estrous detection, breeding, and other tasks did not differ among farms (P>0.10). More M and Lg farms used more boars for estrus detection, rotated boars, and controlled boar movement than Sm farms (P<0.05). Farm size also influenced semen sourcing, number of doses received, and frequency of semen delivery (P<0.05). More M and Lg farms performed AI in the presence of a boar, left the AI rod in after AI, checked for returns, and diagnosed pregnancy than Sm farms (P<0.05). Start of boar exposure after weaning began on 69% of farms within 2 d, occurring most often in the AM, but with exposure times varying from 1 to 5 min/sow. Semen was thermally protected for 50% of farms receiving shipments, and semen storage was consistent among farms. For AI, service occurred within minutes to hours after detection of estrus on 61% of farms. During AI, procedures such as back-pressure were required, whereas techniques such as hands-free AI were prohibited on most farms. Sow movement was allowed only once at 4 wk after breeding on 50% of farms, and pregnancy diagnosis occurred at 3 to 5 wk on 78% of farms. Most sows were allowed ≥1 chance for breeding after conception failure before culling. Incidence of fail to farrow was <5% and litter size was 10 to 13 pigs on >82% of farms. Summer infertility was observed on 69% of farms with estrus and pregnancy failures the leading causes. Over 70% of farms reported a technician effect on fertility. These results suggest that reproductive management of farms in key areas related to weaning, breeding, gestation, and labor use could be a source of variation in reproductive performance.

Challenges and opportunities of milk production under different urban dairy farm sizes in Hawassa City, Southern Ethiopia

The objectives of this study were to understand the production potential, challenges and opportunities in Hawassa. A total of 132 randomly selected milk producing households (HH’s) were interviewed. Dairy cattle in Hawassa city were mainly reared for commercial milk production. 87.5, 79.8 and 60% of large, medium and small size dairy farms, respectively, produced cow milk for sale. The main feed items available in Hawassa city are crop residues, including stover, grass hay, industrial by-products and to some extent Attela – a by-product of a local alcoholic beverage. Deep wells, tap water and rarely, the Lake Hawassa and accessible rivers are drinking water sources for their animals. The average daily milk yield at household level was estimated to be 13.3, 51.5 and 81.4 liters (L) HH-1 for the small, medium and large size farms, respectively with an average being 20.31 L HH-1. Shortage of animal feeds (26%) is the most important limiting factor of dairy production followed by limited space (23%), and animal disease incidence (18%). Therefore, empowering the urban dairy producers by addressing the hampering problems, are helpful to improve production and increase the income of the producers as well as to fulfill the wide range of dairy product demand in the urban areas. Key words: Urban dairy, farm size, challenges, opportunities, Hawassa, Ethiopia.

Analyses of technical efficiency using SDF and DEA models: evidence from Nepalese agriculture

Alleviation of poverty is a central issue in Nepal. Given the limited stock of land and the infant/unorganized manufacturing sector, increased demand for food has to be satisfied by improving production efficiency. This article examines how this could be achieved. Stochastic distance function and data envelopment analysis models identify the existence of a high degree of technical inefficiency in Nepalese agriculture, suggesting that there is a substantial prospect of increasing agricultural productivity using the existing level of inputs and resources more efficiently. Among the three farm sizes in the data set, medium size farmers achieve a higher technical efficiency than large and small farm sizes, suggesting that productive efficiency can be increased with the encouragement of creating medium size holdings. The observed decreasing returns to scale also implies that productivity gains could be achieved by breaking up of large farms into small family farms. The technical inefficiency model suggests the potential for shifting the production frontier upwards by providing ownership of land, increasing farmers’ education and knowledge, and increasing land quality, including irrigation facilities.

Demand for Private Marketing Expertise by Organic Farmers: A Quantile Analysis Based on Counts

We study the demand by organic farmers for technical advice using a quantile regression for the demand of organic farmers for consultations with private information providers. There is substantial heterogeneity in the impact of critical explanatory variables on consultations of organic farmer. Larger farm size has a positive effect on contacts, but the effect is absent for the highest number of consultations. Internet use has a positive marginal effect on visits to private information providers across each quantile, suggesting that expanded efforts to deliver programs through web-based resources are a useful investment for information providers.

Econometric analysis of the determinants of adoption of raising sheep in folds by farmers in the semiarid Loess Plateau of China

Agricultural practices combined with soil erosion resulted in extreme loss of soil fertility and reduced sustainability in the semiarid Loess Plateau of China. Alternative land uses include planting leguminous forage species for cut-and-carry feeding of livestock, and raising sheep in folds (RSFs). In this study, an econometric model was used to quantify the factors determining farmers' decision to adopt RSFs in the area based on a survey of 213 farmer's families in four villages. The analysis showed that families with more female members and fewer children were more likely to adopt RSFs, as well as farmers with more experience raising sheep or goats, households located farther away from markets, and farmers with larger farm sizes and higher grain yields. In contrast, farmers who sold more potatoes, received higher incomes, were well educated or had non-farming sources of income were less likely to adopt RSFs. The probability of adopting RSFs was higher for farmers who have contact with extension agencies working on animal husbandry technologies. RSFs were very consistent with the needs and situations of farming families in the semiarid Loess Plateau. The results would be favor to make policies to improve the sustainability of crop livestock farming systems.

Determinants of High Pesticide Exposure Events in the Agricultural Health Cohort Study from Enrollment (1993-1997) through Phase II (1999-2003)

We conducted an analysis of the determinants of high pesticide exposure events (HPEEs), which are defined as self-reported incidents of high exposure to pesticides, fertilizers, or other chemicals in the Agricultural Health Study, a cohort of private applicators and their spouses residing in North Carolina or Iowa, and commercial applicators residing in Iowa. We examined the risk of HPEEs occurring between enrollment (phase 1: 1993-1997) and follow-up (phase II: 1999-2003) among participants who completed the phase II questionnaire (n=43,149) by calculating hazard rate ratios and 95% confidence intervals using Cox proportional-hazard regression. During the followup period, 1,582 HPEEs were reported (3.8%). HPEE risk was significantly higher among Iowa residents, younger participants, those with a hearing deficit, a risk-taking personality, and an HPEE prior to enrollment. Among private applicators (n=30,102), larger farm size, higher frequency and duration of pesticide use, spraying pesticides with open cab windows, using a tractor cab without a charcoal filter, repairing spray equipment, wearing work clothing more than two days without changing, not removing work boots before entering the home, and storing pesticides in the home were associated with significantly higher HPEE risk. Among commercial applicators (n=2326), higher frequency of pesticide use was associated with a significantly higher HPEE risk. Among spouses (n=10,721), higher frequency of pesticide use, using an application vehicle with a cab, and storing pesticides in the home were associated with a significantly higher HPEE risk. Our findings indicate that HPEEs were associated with several modifiable pesticide handling procedures that can be targeted in safety training and education.

Willingness to adopt the vine multiplication technique in seed yam production in the forest savanna transition agro-ecological zone, Ghana

Yam is a vital crop in Ghana both at the domestic and export markets. It contributes about 17% of agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) and plays a key role in household food security with more than 2 million tons harvested each year. However, the inadequacy of planting materials is a major constraint in yam production. The cost of planting materials alone constitutes about 50% of total cost of production. The newly developed technique of propagating yam through vine cuttings (vine multiplication technique) has been introduced by Council for Scientific and Industrial Research-Crops Research Institute (CSIR-CRI) and its partners to farmers. To assess the willingness of farmers to adopt the vine technology, a study was conducted in the forest-savannah transition zone of Ghana in 2010 involving a total of 375 yam farmers (324 males and 51 females). The study used the probit model to assess framers’ willingness to adopt the vine technique. The results show that age, farm size, experience, yield, cost of adoption, ease of adoption, visits to a demonstration field and the expectation of obtaining more seed yams influenced farmers’ willingness to adopt the vine technique. It is recommended that the technology should be promoted targeting younger experienced farmers with larger farm sizes and higher yields Key words: Ghana, probit model, vine technique, willingness to adopt, Yam.

Factors Influencing the Adoption of Improved Sorghum Varieties in Awbere District of Somali Regional State, Ethiopia

Sorghum is the most important cereal crop in the Awbere District, where the grain is used for human consumption and the stover for animal fodder. Sorghum is produced traditionally using oxen plow, seed broadcasting and threshing by animals. Package based extension program in the Somali Region was started in the year 1996 in Jijiga Zone, including Awbere District and since then, a number of improved sorghum varieties were disseminated to farmers. The purpose of this study was to identify factors that influence the adoption of improved sorghum varieties in Awbere District. Both primary and secondary data were used whereby the primary data were collected from 180 households in 2010. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression model were employed to analyze data. The findings of the study indicated that age and distance to input market were negatively and significantly related to improved sorghum varieties whereas farm size and type of house owned were found to have been positively and significantly related to improved sorghum varieties. The results of the study confirm that farmers who are better in economic status (having larger farm size and better quality house) and have access to market information can be greater technology adopters. Moreover, targeting younger farmers may enhance the adoption of new agricultural technology in the area.Keywords: Adoption; Improved Sorghum Varieties; Awbere District; Socio-Economic Factors; Institutional Factors

Adoption and non-adoption of sprinkler irrigation technology in Ardabil Province of Iran

This survey study was carried out to identify the adoption, discontinuance and non adoption of sprinkler irrigation systems among farmers who were trained to apply those in Ardabil Province of Iran. Farmers were divided into 3 groups as: adopters, abandoners after adoption and non-adopters. A sample of 160 farmers, including 20 adopters, 80 abandoners and 60 non-adopters were randomly selected. Results show that no significant differences among three studied groups exist regarding access to agricultural research and extension service centers. Adopters had lower farming experiences however, were more educated, having larger farm sizes including irrigated and rainfed lands, with more fragments and less distances among them. They were more informed about irrigation methods specially, sprinkler systems than the other two groups. Such awareness enabled them to solve problems occurred after installation of equipments in their farms. On the other hand, weakness of awareness had affected abandoners` decisions to reject the technology. Nevertheless, all of the respondents showed positive attitude towards optimum use of irrigation water. Significant relationships exist among contact with agricultural experts and extension agents as well as training programs of radio, TV and adoption behaviors. Meanwhile, differences among groups regarding ability to read written materials on irrigation were statistically significant. Overall, farmer’s reasons for adopting and non-adopting of sprinkler systems were classified. Key words: Water policy, water efficiency, water allocation, sprinkler irrigation.

Food Security and Agricultural Changes in the Course of China's Urbanization

AbstractChina's small farmers face increasing challenges because of land and water resource constraints and the effects of climate change. With the strengthened agricultural stimulus policies, poverty reduction and social protection programs, as well as the expanding international food trade, up to now China has achieved food security through small farm agriculture. During intensive economic restructuring, smallholders still coexist with large‐sized farms and industrialized agricultural businesses, but are in a vulnerable position in market transactions. Oriented to 2050, China's agricultural development and food security policies should work to improve domestic market structure, to further release international trade control and to empower smallholders.

Concurrent Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus,Porcine Circovirus Type 2 and Pseudorabies Virus InfectionsAssociatedWith ‘High Fever Syndrome’ in Swine of Northern China

Field and laboratory diagnostic investigation was conducted during recent outbreaks of “High Fever Syndrome (HFS)” in numerous large-sized swine farms in Xinjiang of China which obtained pigs from Jiangxi and Hunan Provinces where outbreaks of HFS coincided. The syndrome occurred in these provinces from April 2006 to June 2006 with a peak of index cases in late May 2006. The most common clinical symptoms of HFS in affected pigs were elevating body temperature and rubefaction. Overall morbidity and mortality ranged from 20 to 80%. In sow farms the abortion rate by HFS reached 65% and many weaned piglets had severe dyspnea. The incidence rate of the syndrome in finishing/marketing pigs (10–15 months of age) was up to 50%. In deceased pigs, organ failure was observed in the lungs, liver, spleen, intestines, and lymph nodes. Animals examined had serological evidence of prior exposure to pseudorabies virus (PRV). Furthermore, laboratory testing by a PCR assay on samples from clinically affected animals demonstrated that the majority of index animals were concurrently infected with PRRSV and porcine circovirus type 2, suggesting that epidemic outbreaks of HFS was attributed to infection by multiple viral agents. Many index cases appeared to be related to the application of multiple live virus vaccines in an uncontrolled manner, raising the necessity for implementation of rigid regulation for vaccination programs.

The Impact of Land Fragmentation on Rice Production Cost and Input Use

This article estimated the impacts of land fragmentation on production costs and input demands using panel data of Japanese rice farms. Empirical results reveal that fragmentation increases production costs and offsets economies of size, and that these impacts are strong especially for large size farms. This result implies that as the farm gets larger, emphasis should be switched from increasing size to the settlement of fragmentation, in order to enhance efficiency. Moreover, it was demonstrated that fragmentation increases not only fuel inputs and labor hours for weeding and harvesting as generally accepted, but also managerial labor such as bookkeeping and meeting, and materials such as fertilizers and pesticides probably due to the substitution effects from labor. The range of fragmentation's impacts is spread beyond our scope. This result implies that the settlement of fragmentation will bring not only the reduction of production cost but also an environmental benefit by reducing fertilizers and pesticides.

Economics of egg poultry production in Khartoum State with emphasis on the open-system- Sudan

The main objective of this paper was to study the economics of poultry egg- production in the open- system in Khartoum State. Specific objectives were to study the socio-economic features of poultry egg producers, investigate the main factors contributing to the production cost and compare between production costs, total returns and gross margins in different farm types and sizes. A questionnaire was prepared in order to obtain information on quantities and costs beside socio-economic questions such as level of education. The farms were stratified into strata according to the size of the flock to increase the homogeneity of sampling units. The data were subjected to descriptive statistical analysis to analyze socio-economic characteristics of egg poultry producers. Also, quantitative technique tools were used to measure the profitability of the farms. The study revealed that 58% from egg poultry producers whose main job are poultry breeding, and 60% of poultry producers have experience of more than five years. The feed cost was the main cost item in the egg farm in open-system that, it represented 90.2, 89.7 and 92.7% of total production cost in small, medium and large farm sizes of egg production, respectively, and about 75.8% in (4 - 5 months old) pullet farm. Also, the study revealed that the other factors of production such as price of day-old chicks, price of (4 - 5 months) hens, mortality cost, vaccines and drugs and labor cost represented the most total cost of production. The total cost of production and cost per dozen were lowest in large farm sizes than other farm sizes and type. Highest gross profit was obtained in large farm sizes, while the lowest ones were observed in pullet farms. However, all farms have CPP greater than unity. The study concluded that: feed cost was the main cost item in different farm types and sizes. High percentage of mortality cost and price of day-old chicks and (4 - 5 months) hens were also high. Also, it concluded that, the large size farm was more efficient than other sizes and type of the farms. Key words: Egg production, pullet farm, open-system farms.

Higher breeding densities of the threatened little bustard Tetrax tetrax occur in larger grassland fields: Implications for conservation

Previous studies have found that densities of little bustard Tetrax tetrax breeding males tend to be higher in areas with smaller agricultural fields, presumably due to increased habitat diversity. However, exceptionally high densities have been found in large grassland fields in Portugal, which suggests that the influence of field size varies geographically, and that the role of this factor is not yet fully understood, despite its importance as a key management issue. We studied how field size, together with vegetation structure, influences the presence and density of breeding little bustards in a region of southern Portugal. Fifty-four grassland fields were sampled in 2007 and another 29 in 2008, with sizes ranging from 23 to 172 ha. A total of 183 breeding males were found in 47 of these fields, reaching densities of up to 37 males/100 ha. A higher probability of occurrence of breeding males was found in larger fields with a vegetation height below 40 cm and field size alone explained 46% of the variability in male density. These results suggest that larger continuous areas of suitable habitat attract many males, most likely as a consequence of their lek mating system. We conclude that conservation efforts, in a landscape context of large farm sizes, should: (1) be channelled to farms with large fields; (2) ensure adequate livestock grazing to create suitable habitat and (3) promote management at a landscape level to ensure the most continuous grassland habitat patches possible.