Lankford Parameter Research Articles

High strength-ductility combination by quenching and partitioning of a low carbon microalloyed dual-phase steel

This work investigates the quenching and partitioning of hot and cold rolled (HR & CR) low carbon micro-alloyed (Fe-0.05C-1.3Mn-0.4Si-0.6Cr) dual-phase (DP) steel. The quenching (Q) step involved intercritical annealing (IA) at 840°C for 60min and water quenching (200°Cs−1). This is followed by partitioning (P) treatment comprising of below critical annealing at 600°C for 15min and water quenching. The final microstructure after Q and Q&P contains ∼33% martensite within fine ferrite grains with lath for HR and island type martensite morphology for CR sheets. A high strength, ductility and isotropy combination of ∼544±4MPa UTS; 44%(n=0.30) &49% (n=0.32) and Lankford parameter (r‾)=∼1, respectively were obtained for the HR and CR conditions. The strength could be attributed to the equiaxed fine ferrite grain structure (4.3−6.5μm avg. grain size), secondary martensite phase, and dislocation density. The ductility could be a combined effect of the fine ferrite grain size, low dislocation density, geometrically necessary boundaries networking inside the grains, increased co-incidence site lattice boundaries (CSLB), TRIP effect, and texture weakening. ‘P’ treatment successfully stabilized the retained austenite in this lean alloy and induced the TRIP effect. The martensitic transformation during quenching led to ∑3, ∑11, ∑19b, ∑25b, ∑31b and ∑33c CSLB formation (predominantly ∑3), and partitioning treatment could further increase the CSLB density. The presence of CSLB led to the development of weak and partial α-, β-, γ- and θ- fiber texture in the final microstructure. The weak texture led to isotropy (r‾∼1).

Fostering deep drawability through recrystallization texture strengthening in aluminum-rich interstitial free steel

The development of strong normal direction (ND)║〈111〉 fiber texture is crucial for deep drawability in interstitial free steels used for automotive applications. The present work focuses on comparative investigations on texture development, Lankford parameter measurement, microstructural evolution, recrystallization kinetics, and grain growth kinetics of titanium‑niobium stabilized interstitial free steels with different aluminum (Al) content. Industrially hot-rolled interstitial free steels with 0.06 wt% Al and 0.17 wt% Al were cold-rolled (∼90%), followed by isothermal annealing at 650 °C, 675 °C, and 700 °C for various time intervals. Texture studies using electron backscatter diffraction and X-ray diffraction showed the formation of a stronger ND fiber texture in 0.17 wt% Al steel compared to 0.06 wt% Al Steel after full recrystallization. A high r m value in 0.17 wt% Al steel than in 0.06 wt% Al Steel indicates the beneficial effects of Al addition in interstitial free steel. The study of recrystallization kinetics depicted faster recrystallization kinetics in interstitial free steel with 0.17 wt% Al. The grain growth kinetics of recrystallized grains illustrated similar behavior in both steels. At the onset of recrystallization in 0.06 wt% Al steel, a transient strengthening of the {001} 〈110〉 component (an effect of stress-induced boundary migration) was observed, which obstructed the nucleation of ND fiber grains. In contrast, the initial rapid nucleation of ND fiber grains in the 0.17 wt% Al steel was responsible for stronger ND fiber texture development. • Aluminum-interstitial-free steel developed stronger {111} <uvw> fiber texture. • Aluminum-interstitial-free steel showed high r m value. • Aluminum-interstitial-free steel possesses faster recrystallization kinetics. • Strain-induced boundary migration is dominant initially in normal interstitial free steel. • Rapid nucleation of {111} <uvw> grains occurs in Aluminum-interstitial free steel.

Investigation of the Plane Strain Behaviour of a Laser-Heat Treated Aluminium Alloy

The necessity of complex-shaped components characterized by superior mechanical properties and limited weight is moving the attention to the Aluminium (Al) alloys. Deep Drawing Steel grades possess superior stamping characteristics and formability with respect to Al alloys. But the need of light-weighting pushes towards the adoption of materials with optimal strenght-to-weight ratio, like Al alloys. Todays Al alloys are certainly used in the transport sector but their formability (at room temperature) is poorer than Deep Drawing Steel grades, which still hinders their massive implementation in the forming processes and drives the research toward innovative manufacturing solutions. One of the most promising approach to overcome such a limitation and, thus, manufacture complex component using cold forming processes, is the adoption of local heat treatments to obtain a suitable distribution of material properties able to enhance the formability at room temperature.The design of cold forming using locally modified blanks needs: (i) an extensive investigation of the material behaviour at room temperature after the local heating and (ii) the adoption of a Finite Element approach. As for the former aspect, the authors proposed a fast and comprehensive methodology to investigate the hardening behaviour of an Al alloy (AA5754-H32) locally annealed by laser heat treatment. Using a similar approach, the hardening model was then enriched by considering the normal anisotropy, evaluating the correlation between the Lankford parameter and the material condition reached at the end of the local treatment. To improve the knowledge on the plastic response of the material, the present work focusses on the characterization of the plane strain behavior of the AA5754, initially in wrought condition (H32) and subsequently modified by laser heating. In particular, the study proposes a new quasi-homogeneous specimen which combines the local heating profile with an optimized geometry to produce a prevailing plane strain condition in the heat-treated zone. In such a way, data about the material response in the plane strain condition could be obtained for a large range of material conditions determined by the preliminary heat treatment.

Microstructural changes and formability of Al–Mg ultrafine-grained aluminum plates processed by multi-turn ECAP and upsetting

The article focuses on an evaluation of the microstructure, mechanical properties, anisotropy and formability of ultrafine-grained plates of commercial aluminium alloy 5754, with a main addition of Mg. For manufacturing plates, a hybrid Severe Plastic Deformation process is proposed that combines multi-turn Equal Channel Angular Pressing with upsetting, a conventional metal forming process. It was possible to acquire plates of an average grain size of around 0.4 μm and a fraction of high-angle grain boundaries reaching an average of 70%. Due to the high accumulated strain during the processing, it was possible to achieve a Yield Strength and Ultimate Tensile Strength equal to 430 and 450 MPa, respectively, which is a 200 and 120% increase over the initial condition. The anisotropy of the mechanical properties in plate's plane was negligible. The Lankford parameter was used to evaluate formability, and its values proved to be similar to those acquired from other processing techniques. This combination of a substantial enhancement of mechanical properties and typical anisotropy parameters values offers an attractive technology for the production of high-strength plates suitable for further metal forming.

Microstructure, Texture and Mechanical Properties in Aluminum Produced by Friction-Assisted Lateral Extrusion.

The Friction-Assisted Lateral Extrusion Process (FALEP) is a severe plastic deformation (SPD) technique for producing metal sheets from bulk metal or powder in one single deformation step at room temperature. In the present work, aluminum Al-1050 was deformed by FALEP. Then, its microstructure was examined by EBSD; the crystallographic texture by X-ray; material strength, ductility, and the Lankford parameter by tensile testing; the latter also by polycrystal plasticity simulations. It is shown that the microstructure was highly refined, with the grain size reduced more than 160 times down to 600 nm under the imposed shear strain of 20. The obtained texture was a characteristic simple shear texture with a shear plane nearly parallel to the plane of the sheet. The yield and ultimate strengths increased by about 10 times and three times, respectively. The Lankford parameter was 1.28, which is very high for aluminum, and due to the specific shear texture, unusual in a sheet. All these exceptional characteristics of Al-1050 were obtained thanks to the efficiency of the FALEP SPD process, which is a promising candidate for industrial applications.

Investigation of The Anisotropic Behaviour of Laser Heat Treated Aluminium Blanks

The continuous research for progressively lighter components moves the attention on the massive adoption of Al alloys. The achievement of such an ambitious goal passes through the definition of innovative manufacturing methodologies able to overcome some of the most hindering limitation of Al alloys, i.e. their poor formability at room temperature. A viable approach is based on the modification of the blank properties through a local heat treatment (to achieve an optimized spatial distribution of ductility/strength), so that the subsequent forming operation can be carried out at room temperature. The implementation of such approach relies on finite element simulations, where the use of a proper constitutive material model plays a fundamental role. In the present work an innovative methodology, already proposed by the authors in a previous research, is again adopted to enrich the characterization of a strain-hardenable Al alloy (AA5754), initially purchased in a pre-strained condition (H32), and locally annealed by means of a laser treatment: in particular, Thanks to the adoption of the DIC, the investigation of the anisotropy showed a strict correlation between the value of the Lankford parameter and the material condition reached at the end of the local treatment. The experimental data were fitted by a sigmoidal function and implemented in a modified Hill plasticity model for the simulation of the tensile test of a locally treated dogbone specimen, showing a good accordance with the experimental results.

Thermal stability of microstructure, mechanical properties, formability parameters and crystallographic texture in an Al-7075 alloy processed by accumulative roll bonding

Accumulative roll bonding (ARB) is a severe plastic deformation (SPD) technique that has been extensively used in a wide range of metals to improve their mechanical properties. In particular, ARB processed materials display an increase in both yield and ultimate tensile strength, since the SPD processing induces a remarkable grain refinement. In precipitation-hardened alloys, such as aluminum 7075, this leads to a synergistic effect which further enhances strength. Although the reported results are promising for high-strength applications, thermal stability of the microstructure after processing remains an open question. In this paper, we present an investigation of the thermal stability of the texture, microstructure, and mechanical properties of Al-7075 samples processed by ARB to an equivalent Von Mises strain of 240%. After processing, yield and tensile strength displayed improvements of 30% and 20% respectively over the T6 condition. Crystallographic texture was found to depart from the rotated cube component to Dillamore/Taylor and Goss components. Several annealing heat treatments ranging from 373 to 673 K (100–400 °C) were carried out and it was found that the improved mechanical properties are stable up to 423 K (150 °C). The texture was found to slowly revert to a rotated cube with increasing temperature. The results are discussed in terms of the combination of strength and formability as calculated by the Lankford parameter using the visco-plastic self-consistent code (VPSC).

Microstructure, Texture and Mechanical Properties of Mg-6Sn Alloy Processed by Differential Speed Rolling.

The effect of shear deformation introduced by differential speed rolling (DSR) on the microstructure, texture and mechanical properties of Mg-6Sn alloy was investigated. Mg-6Sn sheets were obtained by DSR at speed ratio between upper and lower rolls of R = 1, 1.25, 2 and 3 (R = 1 refers to symmetric rolling). The microstructural and textural changes were investigated by electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) and XRD, while the mechanical performance was evaluated based on tensile tests and calculated Lankford parameters. DSR resulted in the pronounced grain refinement of Mg-6Sn sheets and spreading of basal texture as compared to conventionally rolled one. The average grain size and basal texture intensity gradually decreased with increasing speed ratio. The basal poles splitting to transverse direction (TD) or rolling direction (RD) was observed for all Mg-6Sn sheets. For the as-rolled sheets, YS and UTS increased with increasing speed ratio, but a significant anisotropy of strength and ductility between RD and TD has been observed. After annealing at 300 °C, Mg-6Sn sheets became more homogeneous, and the elongation to failure was increased with higher speed ratios. Moreover, the annealed Mg-6Sn sheets were characterized by a very low normal anisotropy (0.91–1.16), which is normally not achieved for the most common Mg-Al-Zn alloys.

A simplified method for the evaluation of the layer compression test using one 3D digital image correlation system and considering the material anisotropy by the equibiaxial Lankford parameter

The layer compression test is an established method for the characterization of sheet metal behavior under equibiaxial tension. Due to its ability to achieve high strains without necking and the simple experimental setup, the test is a welcome alternative to the more complex Bulge test for flow curve determination. In addition, the layer compression test provides further data for the calibration of yield loci models. However, the evaluation of the test is not trivial, since a tactile extensometer measurement incorporates the error of closing gaps between single sheet layers. Moreover, the sheet metal anisotropy is neglected. To overcome the above-mentioned drawbacks, a measurement and evaluation methodology based on the optical strain measurement of two orthogonally positioned 3D digital image correlation (DIC) systems was introduced recently. The method delivers reliable results but increases the complexity and costs of the test. Here, a simplification to this method is proposed. By the usage of only one 3D DIC system, the major in-plane strain is acquired from an online measurement. The minor in-plane strain is calculated posteriori by the consideration of the biaxial Lankford parameter. In this way, the anisotropy and thus the correct flow behavior can be studied by only one 3D DIC system. The proposed method is evaluated and discussed.

Study of Khan-Huang-Liang (KHL) Anisotropic Deformation Model for Deep Drawing Behaviour of Inconel 718 Alloy

Study of anisotropic deformation behavior of a material plays a crucial role in optimizing hot working process parameters and trustworthy Finite Element (FE) analysis in sheet metal forming processes. In this work, Khan–Huang–Liang (KHL) phenomenological based constitutive model and anisotropic yield criteria has been formulated for Inconel 718 alloy. Firstly, uniaxial tensile tests have been conducted at different temperatures (room temperature -700°C) and slow strain rates (0.0001-0.1s-1) conditions. KHL constitutive model has been formulated and validated with experimental flow stress data. The prediction capability of the model is evaluated based on correlation coefficient (R), average absolute error, AAE (Δ) and its standard deviation (s). Subsequently, anisotropic yielding behavior of Inconel 718 alloy is predicted based on KHL yield criterion. Anisotropic coefficient (Lankford parameters) and tension compression asymmetry parameters have been calculated experimentally. The prediction capability of KHL yield criterion is analyzed based on yield locus, yield stress variation and anisotropic coefficient variation. The quality index of performance, namely global accuracy index (β) is evaluated. Further, Finite Element (FE) analysis has been carried out for deep drawing of Inconel 718 alloy using commercially available ABAQUS software. The developed KHL constitutive model and anisotropic yield criterion has been incorporated in FE simulation using UMAT/VUMAT code. The FE results are validated with experimental deep drawn cups at different process conditions.

Microstructure, tensile properties and formability of ultrafine-grained Al–Mn square plates processed by Incremental ECAP

In the article, plates of commercial alloy 3003 were processed by Incremental Equal Channel Angular Pressing (I-ECAP). A microstructural evaluation revealed that it was possible to obtain a high fraction of high-angle grain boundaries, exceeding 63%, and an average grain size of 0.5 μm. Tensile testing revealed that the material has low ductility, but high mechanical strength, 120% higher than that of the initial material. Plate formability was described using the Lankford parameter and evaluated based on the crystallographic texture. It was concluded that the mean anisotropy was almost identical to that of the initial material, but planar anisotropy was reduced almost to 0. This was explained on the basis of the crystallographic texture. It appears that I-ECAP processed plates have qualities that could make them suitable for further processing by means of metal forming methods.

Elucidating the deformation modes in incremental sheet forming process: Insights from crystallographic texture, microstructure and mechanical properties

This study investigates the exact state of deformation in single point incremental forming (SPIF) and double-sided incremental forming (DSIF) techniques using experimental observations of texture evolution coupled with a multiscale simulation of the processes. The texture evolution was investigated for different sets of forming parameters such as vertical displacement, wall angle and tool diameter. It was observed that difference in crystallographic texture due to change in tool diameter and vertical displacement was marginal. However, significant difference in texture evolution was observed upon changing the wall angle. Further analysis of crystallographic texture revealed that role of through thickness shear (TTS) is limited in case of DSIF process compared to SPIF process. Numerical simulation of SPIF process via finite element method was successful in capturing the contribution from TTS in SPIF process. Based on insights obtained from finite element calculations, Visco-Plastic Self-Consistent simulations were carried out which were successful in predicting the experimental texture. Finally, the effect of different incremental forming techniques on the mechanical properties of the formed components was studied. The observed anisotropy in yield strength was explained based on the inverse of average Schmid factor. Lankford parameter and yield locus were also estimated from the experimental textures to understand the feasibility of incremental forming at different wall angles.

Constitutive model parameter identification via full-field calibration

The main goal of constitutive model calibration in the field of sheet metal forming is to describe the stress and strain relationship for numerical simulation of the production process as accurate as possible. This may be achieved through enlarged reverse-engineering strategies which are based on available classical or even modified experimental investigations. Therefore, coupon tests have to be discretised and the corresponding test setup is simulated by using the desired spatial and temporal discretisation by finite elements. In this respect the most common characterisation procedure for the identification of constitutive properties of sheet metal is the tensile test acc. to DIN EN ISO 6892-1. In this test, the measurement data such as the tension force and the specimen elongation serve as the basis for classical parameter identification. It particularly aims at identifying the yield behaviour, i.e. the yield locus and the hardening curve of the targeted sheet metal material. The goal of the present research is to investigate how the massive amount of data obtained from state-of-the-art full-field measurement via Digital Image Correlation (DIC) can be used to not only simplify the approach in constitutive parameter identification but also to automate and speed up the process in general. Furthermore, the authors believe that a more accurate description of the yield locus should be possible since the transient development of the deformation gradient is known for every measured local material point. For this purpose a concept to compare transient but scalar data from the DIC measurement with the respective data from virtual tests was developed. These so-called hyper-curves represent response curves in an optimization procedure which are evaluated at multiple locations and are extracted from simulation and experimental data. In a first step, the validation of the method which is based on synthetic (i.e. simulated) data generated with the finite element solver LS-DYNA was accomplished. The generated virtual data consists of hyper-curves with the global force as ordinate value and the local true strain in transversal and longitudinal direction as abscissae value. The results of the validation show that the target hyper-curves can be mapped almost identically and thus the parameter identification using the full-field information from simulated data has proven its applicability. Furthermore, the method was applied to data gained from an experimental tensile test of high strength steel CR210IF. To digitise the transient deformation field on the surface of the specimen a gom/aramis optical measurement system (DIC) has been used. Based on the findings of the present work, it can be stated that the proposed full-field calibration (FFC) method delivers an excellent and efficient approach for the identification of the yield curve parameters. However, the identification of yield curve parameters only shows a small range of the many possibilities that the method could provide in the future. Further constitutive parameters such as those describing the anisotropy of the yield locus, i.e. values for the exponents, Lankford parameters and such, can be identified.

Constitutive Modelling of an Industrial Rolled Sheet for a DIN 1623 St14 (DC04) Steel

The comprehension of the anisotropy impacts on mechanical properties of the rolled steel sheets was investigated using a non-quadratic anisotropic yield function. In this study, experimental and modelling determination of behavior of an industrial rolled sheets for a DIN 1623 St14 steel were carried out. The yield stresses and Lankford r-values in uniaxial were experimentally determined but the balanced biaxial tension stress states and rb were assumed. The parameters of the associated yield equation, derived from the three orthotropic yield functions proposed by Hill48 and Yld2000-2d, were determined. Predictions and the evolution of normalized yield stress and normalized Lankford parameters (plastic strain ratio) obtained by the presented investigative are considered. In order to describe the path of equivalent plastic behavior, the isotropic hardening function is described using the following various empirical standard formulae based on: Hollomon, Ludwick, Swift and Voce model.

Modelling Mechanical Properties of AISI 439-430Ti Ferritic Stainless Steel Sheet

The comprehension of the anisotropy impacts on mechanical properties of the rolled steel sheets was investigated using a non-quadratic anisotropic yield function. In this study, experimental and modelling determination regarding the behaviour of an industrial rolled sheet for a ferritic stainless low-carbon steel were carried out. The parameters of the associated yield equation, derived from the three orthotropic yield functions proposed by Hill48, Yld96 and Yld2000-2d, were determined. Predictions and the evolution of normalized yield stress and normalized Lankford parameters (plastic strain ratio) obtained by the presented investigative are considered. The forecasts given by the YLD2000-2d criterion are consistent with that of the experience. In order to describe the path of strain behavior, the isotropic hardening function is described using the following four empirical standard formulae based on: Hollomon, Ludwick, Swift and Voce law. More accurately, the anisotropy coefficients of three yield functions are represented as a function of the longitudinal equivalent plastic strain.

Anisotropic Deformation Behavior and Forming Limit of Hot-Rolled Al/Mg/Al Three-Layered Composite Sheets

The anisotropic deformation behavior and forming limit of hot-rolled Al/Mg/Al three-layered composite sheets have been investigated in detail. Uniaxial tensile tests were conducted on composite sheets at 0°, 45°, and 90° to the rolling direction. The results show that the properties of the hot-rolled 5052/AZ31/5052 three-layered composite sheet with fine grain distribution and diffusion layer of 18.71 μm were anisotropic and showed temperature dependence. The 0° direction showed the highest n value and the 90° direction the lowest. The highest Lankford parameter was found in the 45° direction, with the maximum $$ \bar{r} $$ value and minimum absolute value of $$ \Delta r $$ at 230°C. Moreover, hemispherical punch tests revealed that the composite sheet exhibited better formability at 230°C than 170°C, especially in the biaxial stress state. In the equibiaxial tensile stress state, significant anisotropy of the thickness distribution and different fracture appearance were also observed.

The Crystallographic Textures and Anisotropy in 2507 Super Duplex Stainless Steel

In this work, the annealing textures in different thickness layers and the Lankford parameter (r‐value) in 2507 duplex stainless steel (DSS) are studied via tensile testing, X‐ray diffraction (XRD), and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The results show that 2507 DSS has poor formability, especially poor deep drawability and noticeable planar anisotropy after cold‐rolling with an average r‐value of 0.86, a planar anisotropy △r of −0.38, and an earring ratio of 7.43. The orientation distribution functions (ODFs) from the different thickness layers show that the texture mainly exists in the ferrite (α) phase, and there is a significant texture gradient in the thickness direction. The texture of the α phase has a strong α‐fiber texture (&lt;110&gt;//RD) and an undeveloped γ‐fiber recrystallization texture (&lt;111&gt;∥ND). The texture intensity of the austenite (γ) phase is weak and is mainly composed of Copper {112}&lt;111&gt;, Brass {110}&lt;112&gt;, Goss {110}&lt;001&gt;, and S {123} &lt;634&gt;. The {001}&lt;110&gt; texture component is highly intense in the α phase and is the dominant reason for the low Lankford parameter (r‐value), whereas the {112}&lt;110&gt; orientation is the main factor for the high planar anisotropy (Δr). The results of the grain orientations after tensile deformation in different directions show that the maximum volume fraction ratios for the {001} and {111} orientations are the root cause of the largest r‐value in the 45° direction.

Determination of formability characteristics of Crofer 22 APU sheets as interconnector for solid oxide fuel cells

In this study, the general formability characteristics of Crofer® 22 APU sheets of different thicknesses (0.2 mm–1.0 mm) are experimentally investigated via tensile, out of plane, Erichsen, cupping and springback tests for a possible application for solid oxide fuel cells in sheet form unlike the conventional bulk form. Holloman equation is also used to fit the experimental stress-strain curves and the anisotropic behavior of the material is considered by determining Lankford parameters. The tensile test results show that the formability is about 0.29 mm/mm for 0.2 mm thick sheets, indicating the suitability of these sheets for the fabrication of interconnectors by a stamping process with desired channel geometry having dimensions similar to conventional channel dimensions. In addition, for a specific combination of process parameters such as blank holder force and lubrication, the formability can be enhanced as proven by Erichsen and cupping test results. Moreover, the formability is found to increase with increasing the sheet thickness and highly anisotropic behavior is observed. In three point bending tests, the negative springback behavior, namely spring-in, is surprisingly observed for a relatively narrow shoulder distance at all thicknesses and set angle values (θ = 90°–120°).

A theoretical investigation of the effect of precipitate habit plane on plastic anisotropy in age hardenable aluminium alloys

In the present investigation, a generalized framework to capture the effect of precipitate habit plane and crystallographic texture of the matrix on plastic anisotropy of precipitation hardenable aluminium alloys is established. In order to simultaneously consider the effect of precipitates and crystallographic texture, the upper bound yield locus is modified suitably by integrating a plastic inclusion model with the Taylor–Bishop–Hill method. It was observed that in the presence of precipitates, anisotropy in the Lankford parameter decreases with precipitates on the {100}Al habit plane being the most effective. With respect to strength anisotropy, it was observed that precipitates on the {100}Al habit plane tend to reduce texture induced anisotropy, whereas precipitates on the {110}Al and {111}Al habit planes tend to enhance texture induced anisotropy. Additionally, it was observed that the deviation from ideal axisymmetric loading is reduced in the presence of precipitates. It was found that the generalized framework developed in the present investigation can successfully explain the evolution of anisotropy in the yield strength, yield locus and Lankford parameter in different age hardenable aluminium alloys.

The plastic flow machining: A new SPD process for producing metal sheets with gradient structures

A new severe plastic deformation process is presented – the plastic flow machining – an extrusion process during which a sheet is formed through a lateral opening of the die in a single operation. The sheet is heavily deformed presenting an ultra-fine grain structure. Experimental results are presented for commercially pure aluminum concerning microstructures, textures and mechanical properties. A gradient structure was found across the thickness of the sheet concerning plastic strain, grain size and texture. Only simple shear textures were seen. The material strength increased by a factor of three with significant ductility and with relatively high Lankford parameter.