Language Teacher Education Programs Research Articles

From Virtual to Physical

Since the beginning of the third decade of the 21st century, teachers of all levels of education have been experiencing turbulent times. Beginner teachers as well as experienced ones have been forced to rethink their skillset to reflect the changes not only in opportunities provided by the development of technology and globalisation but also the sudden, unexpected consequences of the global pandemic. The governmental decision to close all educational institutions in the Czech Republic because of the COVID-19 pandemic and to move the teaching and learning process into an online environment had an impact on university initial teacher education for future teachers of English, among others. Everyone had to cope with the challenges the situation brought about; educators had to re-evaluate their approach to initial teacher education so that their students would feel better prepared for the challenges of the crisis. Teacher educators, among others, have embraced the changing environment and have been actively searching for ways to best support students in their preparation for the teaching profession. The aim of this paper is to present and discuss the results of research conducted at the Department of English and American Studies at a regional Czech university in response to the consequences of the pandemic. The aim of the small-scale study was to explore student teachers’ perceptions of whether and how their microteaching sessions, conducted online because of the pandemic restrictions, prepared them for their face-to-face placement practice teaching the following semester. The context, therefore, was heavily influenced by the circumstances of the global pandemic. The theoretical framework of the initial English language teacher education programme, and of this paper, is based on the models of teacher professionalism (Spilková, 2019), the reflective practitioner (Černá, Píšová, & Vlčková, 2017), and the realistic approach (Korthagen et al., 2001). In the study, the data from reflection sessions, two focus group discussions, and a questionnaire were collected, analysed, and evaluated. The participants in the study were second-year bachelor students of the English for Education programme. The results of the research indicate that the students did not see the aims and content of the selected study programme as being affected by changes of external conditions; however, the processes of their professional learning were perceived as having been affected. These outcomes are in alignment with the research of Yochanna and Levy (2022) into the effective implementation of microteaching practice in teacher preparation. The implications of this study, in terms of both education and research, suggest that initial teacher education for future teachers of English needs to address the challenge of enabling the students to get ready for their profession regardless of whether they are teaching online or face-to-face classes. Initial teacher education should aim to prepare future teachers to expect the unexpected, which is a theme to be explored in further research.

From Virtual to Physical

Since the beginning of the third decade of the 21st century, teachers of all levels of education have been experiencing turbulent times. Beginner teachers as well as experienced ones have been forced to rethink their skillset to reflect the changes not only in opportunities provided by the development of technology and globalisation but also the sudden, unexpected consequences of the global pandemic. The governmental decision to close all educational institutions in the Czech Republic because of the COVID-19 pandemic and to move the teaching and learning process into an online environment had an impact on university initial teacher education for future teachers of English, among others. Everyone had to cope with the challenges the situation brought about; educators had to re-evaluate their approach to initial teacher education so that their students would feel better prepared for the challenges of the crisis. Teacher educators, among others, have embraced the changing environment and have been actively searching for ways to best support students in their preparation for the teaching profession. The aim of this paper is to present and discuss the results of research conducted at the Department of English and American Studies at a regional Czech university in response to the consequences of the pandemic. The aim of the small-scale study was to explore student teachers’ perceptions of whether and how their microteaching sessions, conducted online because of the pandemic restrictions, prepared them for their face-to-face placement practice teaching the following semester. The context, therefore, was heavily influenced by the circumstances of the global pandemic. The theoretical framework of the initial English language teacher education programme, and of this paper, is based on the models of teacher professionalism (Spilková, 2019), the reflective practitioner (Černá, Píšová, & Vlčková, 2017), and the realistic approach (Korthagen et al., 2001). In the study, the data from reflection sessions, two focus group discussions, and a questionnaire were collected, analysed, and evaluated. The participants in the study were second-year bachelor students of the English for Education programme. The results of the research indicate that the students did not see the aims and content of the selected study programme as being affected by changes of external conditions; however, the processes of their professional learning were perceived as having been affected. These outcomes are in alignment with the research of Yochanna and Levy (2022) into the effective implementation of microteaching practice in teacher preparation. The implications of this study, in terms of both education and research, suggest that initial teacher education for future teachers of English needs to address the challenge of enabling the students to get ready for their profession regardless of whether they are teaching online or face-to-face classes. Initial teacher education should aim to prepare future teachers to expect the unexpected, which is a theme to be explored in further research.

ESL teachers’ metalanguage as evidence of their metalinguistic knowledge of the English intonation system

The present study investigated six experienced English as a second language (ESL) teachers’ metalinguistic knowledge of the English intonation system through analysis of their metalanguage. Participants’ metalanguage related to intonation was collected while completing three tasks: (1) a semi-structured interview, (2) a simulated teaching demonstration, and (3) a pronunciation needs assessment. Qualitative content analysis revealed information related to their metalinguistic knowledge of the intonation subsystems of parsing, prominence, and pitch contour. Although broad patterns of metalinguistic knowledge across participants were evident, metalanguage variation showed individual differences in conceptualization and descriptiveness of the subsystems, suggesting a lack of a systematic and in-depth understanding of the characteristics and functions of the interrelated subsystems. Findings highlight the need to enhance teachers’ metalinguistic knowledge of the English intonation system, with more emphasis on the interconnectivity of intonational features and contextual meaning-making phenomena of intonation. The study provides implications for second language (L2) teacher educators and education programmes, suggesting that more attention should be given to teachers’ use of metalanguage for explicit pronunciation instruction. In addition, more training opportunities are needed to foster a systematic and in-depth understanding of the intonation system.

Digital-inclusive Transformation and Teacher Preparedness for Foreign Language Education – A Bilateral German-Norwegian Perspective

Digitalisation and inclusion can be understood as transversal topics in pre- and in-service teachers’ professional development. Both topics have attracted considerable research activity. However, questions of digital-inclusive transformation have only rarely been discussed within the field of foreign language teaching. Researchers in the field state a pressing need to increase digital-inclusive transformation uptake in foreign language teacher education programmes to develop a transformation ‘mindset’ in (educational) stakeholders and (future) teachers. Transformation processes in education, however, interact with preparedness for digitalisation and inclusion among pre- and in-service teachers, since the attitude and the willingness of teachers to adapt to digital reality play a decisive role in improving the quality of (digitally enhanced) teaching and learning. Currently, little is known about the interrelationship between the preparedness to use digital technology for foreign language teaching and learning and the preparedness to include foreign language learners with diverse learning needs (DLN) in the digital-inclusive classroom. To this end, this bilateral cross-country study investigates factors that constitute an attitudinal component of foreign language teachers’ perceived preparedness for using digital technology with learners with diverse learning needs in Germany and Norway. The Teacher of English Preparedness to Diverse Learning Needs in the digital inclusive classroom questionnaire was administered to 221 participants. The results show a fresh perspective on preparedness for digitally enhanced inclusive teaching linked to educational system requirements for foreign language teaching. Importantly, confidence when using digital technology in the inclusive classroom is decisive. For teacher education, it is vital that the attitudinal component of teacher preparedness receives more attention throughout teacher training. It should be related to previous experience of teachers with DT in digital-inclusive environments and be part of a heuristic conceptualisation of teacher preparedness for digitalinclusive contexts.

Connecting collaborative practicums to beliefs: The development of nonnative student teachers’ self-efficacy in native-nonnative trainee collaboration

This qualitative study aimed to fill a research gap by examining the development of self-efficacy beliefs among nonnative-speaking student teachers (NNSTs) in teaching languages other than English. Situated in an international teacher education program for Chinese as a second/foreign language, this study explored the impacts of collaborative practicums on the self-efficacy beliefs of 17 NNSTs while they worked with 28 native-speaking student teachers (NSTs). The collaborative tasks included peer discussions, microteaching, peer observations, and peer feedback. The NNSTs' reflective essays were collected as primary data, supplemented by peer discussion and microteaching videos and peer feedback questionnaires. Using a qualitative methodology that integrated emotion coding and thematic analysis, the study revealed that all four tasks positively influenced NNSTs' self-efficacy beliefs by satisfying their professional engagement intentions. However, tasks involving verbal interactions between NNSTs and NSTs had adverse effects on NNSTs' self-efficacy beliefs, attributed to the limited academic language proficiency of NNSTs and the unsympathetic reactions and linguistic superiority displayed by NSTs. Finally, a three-phase collaborative practicum framework was proposed for language teacher education programs involving mixed native and nonnative trainee groups. This framework highlights the importance of developing inclusive interventions to foster the mutual recognition of nonnative-speaking teachers' values.

PREPARING STUDENT TEACHERS TO TEACH: A TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED, REFLECTIVE, AND COLLABORATIVE MODEL

In language teacher education programs, to train learners to become effective and qualified teachers, theories of learning and teaching are taught. In the methodology courses, learners experience teaching to their peers as a link between theory and practice. To improve teaching experiences, the current study focuses on a special methodology course, Teaching English to Young Learners, by implementing technology, reflective feedback, and collaborative learning, and it presents a model that is grounded within the social constructivist theory. Sixty-two learners participated in the study. Two groups were randomly assigned to the Technology Enhanced Group and Control Group to investigate the effectiveness of the technology-enhanced, reflective, and collaborative model; and to explore the learners’ perceptions. The qualitative data was analyzed using feedback, reflections, and learner interviews. The technology-enhanced, reflective, and collaborative model of teaching how to teach to young learners proved to be effective. Participants noticed the pedagogical aspects of the teaching model presented to them and their perceptions were positive. It is concluded that it is crucial to search for ways to help learners learn the theory and prepare future teachers for their actual classroom experience in language teacher education programs.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/edu/0108/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

Utilizing P7 as a Model to Facilitate Language Teacher Development Program: Implication for Applied Linguistics

This research focuses on the imperative need for effective language teacher production in Nigeria to meet the growing demand for language education and applied linguistics. The study introduces the P7 Model, a comprehensive framework that encompasses seven key elements essential for successful language teacher development: Personnel, Potentials, Partnership, Process, Property, Product, and Probing. The research involves a survey of 400 practicing language teachers across various educational levels in Nigeria. The survey examines their perceptions regarding the importance of these seven elements in shaping language teacher education programs. The findings are analyzed using simple percentages. The results highlight strong agreement among respondents concerning the significance of each P7 element in the language teacher development process. Specifically, participants emphasize the need for competent, proficient, and enthusiastic teaching staff (Personnel), collaborative efforts through partnerships, research, and engagement with regulatory bodies (Partnership), admission of candidates with a genuine interest in language teaching and strong academic potential (Potentials), a curriculum emphasizing practical skills and employability (Process), the provision and optimal use of infrastructure and resources (Property), job security, remuneration, incentives, and continuing professional development (Product), and quality assurance and control throughout the teacher development process (Probing). The P7 Model offers a structured approach to guide language program administrators and policymakers in shaping effective language teacher education programs. Prioritizing these elements is crucial to ensure the availability of skilled, dedicated, and enthusiastic language teachers who can meet the demands of the 21st century, ultimately facilitating applied linguistics and language education in Nigeria.

Pedagogical tact in the English language teacher education programme

AbstractThis study fills a major gap in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher education by examining the integration of pedagogical tact (PT) in an EFL teacher education programme in Turkey. Through an in‐depth examination of the programme and semi‐structured interviews, this study investigated to what extent PT, including empathising with and motivating learners, effective classroom management, differentiated instruction and support for meaningful decision‐making, is integrated. The qualitative content analysis of the programme demonstrated that many courses in the EFL teacher education programme are consistent with aspects of PT. However, there were a few areas where the programme could be further enhanced to better include all aspects of PT. This includes offering courses on effective communication and decision‐making. The interviews conducted with 21 pre‐service EFL teachers also revealed that most of them acknowledged that the programme is based on their potential teaching needs and challenges. However, they offered suggestions to improve the programme such as adding more technology courses and practice‐based implementations. Throughout the study, recommendations are provided regarding how EFL teacher education programmes could be developed and implemented with more emphasis on PT. Hence, the study's findings have important implications for teacher education programme developers in Turkey and international contexts.

Corpus Literacy Training for In-Service English Language Teachers

Corpus analysis offers a more accurate understanding of a language than intuition but is not widely used in foreign language instruction. This study uses a hermeneutic-phenomenology approach and content analysis to examine the impact of a corpus literacy course on the perceptions and performance indicators of 29 English language teachers. The results suggest that corpus literacy instruction is crucial for language teachers to incorporate corpus into their classroom practices effectively. Even a brief, intensive corpus literacy course can positively alter teachers’ perceptions and abilities, increase their awareness of corpus usage in language teaching, and equip them with the skills needed, highlighting the importance of incorporating corpus literacy into the design of English language teacher education programs.

Integrating positive psychology into an English as a foreign language teacher education program

Positive psychology (PP) is the study of the role of positive emotions in optimizing performance. In response to a dearth of research on harnessing the potential of PP in enriching language teacher education, the present study aimed at integrating PP into an English as a foreign language teacher education program to assess its effects on the development of positivity among teachers and possible improvement in their instructional practice. To that end, first the PERMA-Profiler was administered to 25 teachers, who were about to attend a teacher training course. The results of this phase revealed the need for an intervention to raise three focal participants’ awareness of the tenets of PP since they scored below the mean on the scale. During the second phase, the three focal participants were trained in the principles of PP for six weeks. They were also asked to write reflections about the instruction they received on a weekly basis. Thematic analysis of their reflections indicated that the teachers formed positive emotions, engagement, relationship, meaning, and accomplishment, which resulted in their enhanced instructional practice. Moreover, the participants believed that the intervention helped them actively engage with the main teacher training course. The findings imply that PP has the potential to enrich teacher education programs.

Exploring changes in EFL preservice teachers’ motivation to enter the teaching profession in the context of policy change

Motivation to become teachers is believed to be a predictor of quality teachers’ professionalism. Particularly in language teaching, teachers with good motivation will support the teaching of English which is considered difficult by many students. However, changes in policy about Education qualification requirement might affect preservice English teachers’ motivation to enter the teaching profession. This study seeks for answers on how this change affects preservice teachers’ motivation to enter teaching profession. Data were in the forms of responses to questions related to participants’ initial motivation and the motivation at their 8th semester. They were collected using an online open-ended survey with links distributed via emails or WhatsApp to 400 English Language Education students. Two hundreds and ninety-nine students (response rate of 74.75%) filled in the survey. The data were analyzed qualitatively by coding and labeling the responses following the types of regulations proposed by the Self-determination Theory (SDT) of motivation. Findings suggest that 48.2% participants reported their initial motivation as Extrinsic, 41.8% Fallback Career, 1.7% Amotivation, 7.4% Intrinsic, and 1% Altruistic. Significant changes from Fallback Career to more autonomous extrinsic types of regulation were identified, where 75.9% participants reported Extrinsic Motivation and 6.0% Fallback Career at their 8th semester. Findings about high initial fallback careers imply the needs for careful selection of language teacher education programs. The fact that fallback careers change implies the hope for future teachers’ better practices, which in turns improve the English teaching in the classrooms.

Telecollaboration in English Language Teacher Education: A Systematic Review

Telecollaboration practices enable geographically dispersed participants to interact with each other through synchronous or asynchronous computer-mediated communication tools. Telecollaboration plays a significant role in learning cultural differences, raising awareness, and training language teachers by improving intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and language skills. With this role in mind, this paper aims to present a systematic review of the telecollaboration studies conducted within the scope of English language teacher training programs between 2018 and 2022 by analyzing twenty up-to-date and peer-reviewed articles according to the steps of the systematic review study. Along with the differences among study aims and designs, it is found that the findings of the reviewed studies can be grouped under three main themes, which are the benefits of telecollaborative exchanges, the drawbacks associated with telecollaboration and suggestions for further telecollaborative projects. Accordingly, some implications are provided for integrating telecollaboration into language teacher education programs.

The influence of emotional intelligence awareness on the teaching experiences of university teacher trainees: a quantitative and qualitative analysis

Educating prospective teachers is a complex and interdisciplinary effort, encompassing educational policies, core subject knowledge, and honing essential skills, attitudes, and behaviours necessary for effective classroom teaching. This study focuses on the initial stage of teacher development, exploring how pre-service university students perceive and understand emotional intelligence (EI) and its components, especially as they embark on internships in primary and secondary schools. The emotional dynamics in English language teaching classrooms, involving various emotions among students, teachers, parents, and colleagues are examined. The study underscores the importance of emotional expertise for both students and teachers in facilitating a productive teaching and learning process. A review of relevant literature reveals that while there is extensive research on emotions in teacher training, the emphasis has been primarily on general education, with limited focus on second-language teacher education. EI is seen as a critical factor in teachers' classroom management, pedagogical skills, and overall success within the profession. Additionally, studies on EI within English as a foreign language (EFL) teacher education are relatively scarce but indicate a significant impact on teaching outcomes. This research employs a mixed-methods approach to investigate pre-service teachers' perceptions of EI. Quantitative data was collected through a survey questionnaire measuring participants' agreement with statements related to EI. Qualitative data was obtained through in-depth interviews with selected pre-service teachers. The study involved 32 pre-service university students enrolled in English language teacher education programs about to begin internships at primary and secondary schools in Poland.

The Experiences of The Practicum Dyad: A Meta-Synthesis From Turkish EFL Case (2012-2022)

Purpose: The practicum component of teacher education programs and its active participants, mentor teachers (cooperating teachers) and student teachers, have a special place in teacher education programs. With a focus on the experiences of this practicum dyad, this meta-synthesis aims to describe a broader picture of practicum practices in the Turkish EFL context. 
 Design/Methodology/Approach: It investigates the recent qualitative studies published between 2012 and 2022 through a meta-synthesis 
 Findings: The synthesis identified three main themes: (1) challenges, (2) expectations, and (3) appreciation of both members, which were further categorized as practicum-based, profession-based, and school-based. 
 
 Highlights: The results provided not only valuable data to inform a mentor training program but also uncovered the concerns experienced by all three groups, which should be carefully examined, and necessary actions should be taken accordingly. Through a review of in-depth qualitative studies related to the experiences of the EFL practicum dyad, it provides a broader lens for the practicum studies conducted in language teacher education programs in Turkey and raised issues to be addressed by supervisors, mentors, student teachers, and policy makers, which could also lead to further inquiries for other teaching contexts.

Corpora in English Language Teacher Education: Research, Integration, and Resources

AbstractFor some time, arguments have been made that for the increased successful use of corpus linguistics (CL), in the form of Data‐Driven Learning (DDL; Johns, 1991) in the second language classroom, teacher education programs must play a central role by providing the necessary instruction and triggers. Three means of integrating corpora into teacher education have been identified (Leńko‐Szymańska, 2022): as a tool for language awareness, as pedagogically‐focussed instruction for DDL, and as a fully‐fledged CL course. It is difficult to gauge the effectiveness of these three approaches because we can only rely on the relatively few, but growing, number of research studies that are published. Naturally, the existing studies are based on relatively small numbers of participants, rely mainly on data collected through questionnaires and self‐reports, and rarely trace the extended effects of the instruction after the student teachers leave the programs. It is also hard to generalize from these accounts as they are deeply imbedded in their institutional curricula and their local teacher education traditions. Nonetheless, they provide a foundation for the discussion in this paper which proposes a tripartite framework for the integration of instructional CL into language teacher education programs. This consists of corpus literacies, corpus‐based language pedagogy, and corpus‐based reflective practice. In addition, we present a summary of some useful published resources that can be used to support the integration of such a framework.

Language Teacher Educators’ Identity Construction through Teaching and Supporting Action Research: A Trioethnographic Study

Action research is a form of inquiry that allows language educators to understand and improve their own practice. The literature suggests that language teachers can employ it as a self-led and self-directed source of professional development and enhancement of their professional identity and agency. However, little is known about its impact on the development of identity of language teacher educators who teach and support action research. Against this backdrop, this article aims to explore the experience of three language teacher educators regarding the influence of action research on the construction of their professional identity. Drawing on verbal and visual data sets, findings show that when teacher educators teach and mentor action research in language teacher education programmes, they can become guiding knowers, reflective practitioners and agents of change. The roles that teacher educators enact may lead to a reflective process that enhances their professional development. These identities connected to agentic growth demonstrate the relevance of including action research in language teacher education programmes as it can help teacher educators nurture their professional identity, particularly concerning their professional knowledge. This study suggests that teaching and supporting action research can become a meaningful entry point for language teacher educators to reflect on their own practice and to carry out action research themselves in language teacher education programmes.

Autoethnography for language teacher education programs: Connecting identities, ideologies, and experiences to curricular design practices

AbstractAutoethnography, a qualitative research methodology that investigates aspects of individuals' identities, ideologies, and emotions, has recently gained traction in applied linguistics and second language (L2) scholarship. However, research is needed that investigates the use of autoethnography in preservice teacher education programs, along with exploring the connections between individuals' autoethnographies and actual pedagogical practices. The current study explores such issues by implementing a critical autoethnographic narrative assignment in a master's TESOL course for teacher candidates (TCs). Eight TCs completed two installments of a critical autoethnographic narrative, reflecting on their prior L2 learning and teaching/tutoring experiences. After completing various course assignments (e.g., textbook review, lesson plans), TCs then produced a final multimodal reflection, examining how their experiences influenced their pedagogies. TCs' narratives and reflections were thematically analyzed to examine 1) shared identities, ideologies, and challenges faced, and 2) explicit connections TCs made between their experiences and pedagogies. The findings of this study point to multiple shared ideologies and challenges among the TCs. Some preservice teachers were also able to link aspects of their identities and ideologies to specific curricular design practices. Implications are discussed for L2 teacher educators in terms of leveraging autoethnography for fostering reflective practices.

Asenkron Yansıtma ve Tartışmanın Öğretmen Adaylarının COVID-19 Pandemisi Hakkındaki Argümanları Değerlendirmesine Etkisi

Pre-service teachers (PSTs) play a key role in creating future citizens who critically evaluate information. Therefore, this study investigated PSTs’ ability to evaluate two controversial topics about COVID-19 before and after asynchronous reflection and discussion on the trustworthiness of evidence and credibility of sources of evidence. Eighteen sophomores who studied in the English Language Teacher Education Program in the Faculty of Education at a private university in Turkey participated in the study. Their pre- and post-assignments, in which they discussed arguments about COVID-19, were analyzed. The results of the study reveal the positive impact of asynchronous reflection and discussion to facilitate PSTs’ critical evaluation. The results suggest further implications in teacher education programs and teacher education research for promoting argumentation skills.

Knowledge Base for Classroom Preparedness: Analyzing Initial English Language Teacher Education in Kyrgyzstan

This study examines the extent to which the Initial English Language Teacher Education (IELTE) program curriculum facilitates the development of the necessary knowledge base to ensure prospective English language teachers’ classroom preparedness. Data were collected through curricular analysis of four IELTE programs and semi-structured interviews with four program directors and 10 early career English teachers to evaluate IELTE program effectiveness to prepare teachers, at least, entry-level teaching. Findings indicate that contextual factors such as rigid national policy documents, teacher educators’ limited competencies and their role in curriculum development and implementation, the status of the IELTE programs within the universities, lack of collaboration between IELTE programs and schools contributed to the inefficiency of IELTE programs to ensure prospective English teachers’ classrooms preparedness. Thus, English teachers were not prepared to carry out their jobs effectively because the knowledge base that prospective teachers acquire and develop through the IELTE program did not correspond to what they need in their classrooms for effective teaching.

Investigating English Teachers’ Perceptions of English language Education through the Q Method

Educators, politicians, and scholars have been interested in English language education for many years. Despite the rising significance of English as a global language, there still needs to be agreement on the most effective techniques for teaching English language skills. Understanding the opinions and attitudes of English instructors towards language instruction might assist in shaping educational practises and initiatives. This research sought to evaluate English instructors' perspectives on English language education using the Q approach. Q methodology is a research strategy that enables people to rank and prioritise their ideas on an issue, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of people’s viewpoints. The research included 40 English language instructors from various areas of Turkey who were asked to rate 20 English language education statements based on their degree of agreement. A survey of the literature and conversations with instructors and students were used to construct the assertions. The study’s findings indicated three unique points of view among English language instructors, which the researchers named "Traditionalists," "Idealists," and "Realists." Traditionalists felt that language learning should be based on knowledge of linguistic norms and emphasised the significance of grammar and translation abilities. The Idealists felt that language study should strengthen students’ abilities to communicate and comprehend diverse cultures and that communication and critical thinking skills should be prioritised. Realists emphasised practical abilities and tactics that can be used in everyday life, and they felt that language instruction should be relevant to students personal and professional aspirations. The research finds that varied opinions and attitudes towards English language education among English instructors might impact their teaching practises and tactics. The research also emphasises the necessity of knowing teachers’ opinions on language instruction and the possible advantages of investigating instructors’ perceptions using the Q technique. This research has practical consequences for language education policy and teacher education programmes.