Language Teacher Cognition Research Articles

Mind the gap: English teachers’ perceptions and practices of integrating social media into language classrooms in China

This study investigates the perception-practice gap among English teachers in China concerning the integration of social media into teaching, blending the Language Teacher Cognition (LTC) framework with the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model. A mixed methods approach, including the adoption of online questionnaires, instructional documents and semi-structured interviews was utilised to investigate these research questions from different perspectives. We collected 119 valid questionnaires. From these, we selected seven volunteers—those who provided their contact information and represented a range of demographic profiles—for further study. Seven instructional documents were gathered from these volunteers. Subsequently, follow-up interviews were conducted with these selected participants to gain deeper insights into their experiences and perspectives. The study revealed a significant discrepancy between moderately high perceptions and relatively low practices. This dynamic and bi-directional gap is influenced by microscopic factors like schooling and affective issues, as well as macroscopic factors such as institutional and societal influences. These factors constitute a layered system. The findings illuminate the complexities underlying the perception-practice gap in English teaching with social media integration, offering theoretical, methodological, and practical implications.

Teachers' knowledge, perceptions, and practices in integrating elements of volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA) into language teaching

In today's constantly evolving educational environment, teachers face challenges due to the unpredictable and complex nature of the world. Volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA) characterize this era, influencing how people interact with information and navigate life. This descriptive study examined language teachers' knowledge, perceptions, and practices regarding the integration of VUCA elements into language teaching. One hundred language teachers participated by completing a questionnaire created by the researchers. The results showed that the teachers were "quite knowledgeable" about integrating VUCA elements and had a "positive perception" of it. Additionally, the study found that these teachers "always practiced" several strategies related to VUCA integration. These strategies included collaborative learning, multimodal instruction, developing language and intercultural competence, creating global connections, integrating technology, engaging in reflective practice, and pursuing continuous professional development. They also "often practiced" flexible lesson planning, fostering resilience and adaptability in learners, using problem-based and inquiry-based learning, employing dynamic assessment, and promoting authentic and real-world language use. Therefore, the extensive knowledge of language teachers allows them to design and implement learning environments that truly reflect the complexities of the real world.

Reconciling the evolving conceptualisations of language teacher cognition from an activity theory perspective

ABSTRACT A review of literature suggested that language teacher cognition had been used interchangeably with teachers’ knowledge and beliefs, and examined as a static entity to map out the what aspect of teachers’ minds. More recently, it has evolved to be thought of as being interactive, dynamic, and situated. However, the relationship between the two different conceptualisations remains obscure in the field. This article engages in a discussion on the conceptualisation and analysis of teacher cognition in relation to teachers’ knowledge and beliefs from an activity theory perspective, drawing upon data collected from pedagogical reforms of introducing task-based language teaching for teaching Chinese as a second language. The study posits conceptualising teacher knowledge and beliefs as one element of the activity system, that is the teachers’ psychological tools, with teacher cognition towards pedagogies as the tool-object negotiation activity, which involves more complexity and dynamics. The study adds to the understanding of language teacher cognition, and offers conceptual and analytical insights for conducting future research.

Teachers’ cognition and classroom implementation of tasks in task-supported language teaching (TSLT)

Research into language teacher cognition has expanded over the past two decades. This line of inquiry has contributed to our understanding of teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and classroom behaviors. Whereas prior studies have investigated teachers’ cognition of tasks in task-based language teaching (TBLT), to date exploring their cognition in task-supported language teaching (TSLT), particularly in the Iranian context, has received scant attention. To fill this research gap, the present study aimed to provide insights into English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ cognition of tasks and task implementation in a TSLT setting. Data were collected through classroom observations and semi-structured interviews with four Iranian EFL teachers. Findings revealed that the teachers perceived tasks as a worthwhile area for their teaching as these pedagogical tools provide learners with opportunities to practice previously taught language items orally and enhance motivation and interaction among learners. However, the participants’ cognition of tasks and task implementation were not completely aligned with the conceptualizations proposed in the literature. On the other hand, there was a relatively strong consistency between teachers’ cognition of tasks and their task implementation practices. In light of the present findings, possible implications for teacher-preparation programs in TSLT including equipping teachers with professional knowledge about tasks and task implementation are presented.

“It’s Difficult Not to Intervene Sometimes”: Language Teacher Cognition, Emotion, and Agency in a Self-Directed Learning Unit

Despite the increasing recognition of language learning beyond traditional classrooms, little is known about how language teachers support and guide students in self-directed learning environments. Drawing on qualitative data from a team of experienced English as a Foreign Language teachers, this article reports on the intersections between teachers’ cognition, emotions, and agency in a self-directed language learning unit (SDLU) at a university in Japan. Thematic analysis of the data illuminated dialectal relationships between teachers’ feelings, beliefs, and agency during the implementation of the SDLU. Although teachers were supportive of SDLU’s goals and the overall approach it promoted, they were cautious of intervening in their students’ self-directed learning due to concerns about protecting the learner autonomy that SDLU was designed to foster. As well as confusion over how best to meet the needs of their learners in this novel context, they experienced vulnerability in relation to their professional identities and there was considerable variation in ways teachers enacted agency and managed the new learning environment. The findings suggest teachers may need guidance and support to help them recalibrate existing competencies and develop strategies for nurturing their students’ self-directed learning in novel classroom contexts.

Conceptual Framework on Language Teacher Cognition (LTC) in Classroom Interactions and The Facilitation of Students’ Speaking Skill at Sekolah Agama Rakyat (SAR) Schools

Conceptual Framework on Language Teacher Cognition (LTC) in Classroom Interactions and The Facilitation of Students’ Speaking Skill at Sekolah Agama Rakyat (SAR) Schools

Metacognition and Self-Awareness

This article reports on the lead author’s reflection about the role of his personality in a tertiary-level English-language course that he taught in Japan in 2019, and the impact of that reflection on his self-awareness. Other participants of this self-study included the learners in the course (46 in total, nine male and 37 female), and other teachers in the same faculty. Data collection methods included a teaching log/journal, a focus group meeting with fellow part-time teachers, semi-structured interviews with learners and a full-time teacher, observations of several of his own classes, and questionnaires completed by learners. A recent systematic literature review of the definition of self-awareness (Carden et al., 2022) informed the study, with the teacher reflecting on the following components of self-awareness: his beliefs, internal mental state, physiological responses, personality traits, motivations, behaviors, and others’ perceptions. To inform his reflection about the above components, he drew on literature related to second language teacher cognition and second language teacher development. The findings of the study indicate that the teacher’s self-awareness has developed in a number of ways. Overall, he has become more aware of his personality and the potential for it to have a negative impact on his teaching practice. His reflection indicates that it is beginning to have a positive impact on his language-teaching-focused metacognition.

The Structure and Characteristics of Chinese University English Teachers’ Identities: Toward a Sustainable Language Pedagogy

This study investigates the enacted identities of Chinese university English teachers in the context of English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching. The aim is to explore the underlying structure and characteristics of these teachers’ identities and examine their alignment with the principles of sustainable learning in education (SLE), which goes beyond knowledge acquisition in a chosen discipline and aims to nurture life-long and resilient learners that are able to reflect upon, renew, relearn, and assess what has been taught and orient themselves for future learning processes. A questionnaire was used to gather perceptions of enacted identities in teaching practice from 326 Chinese university English teachers. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) revealed four distinct dimensions of identity: Advocate and Motivator for English Learning, Facilitator of English Learning, Reflective Practitioner and Researcher, and Book Teacher. Interviews were conducted with a subsample of 12 teachers to further explore the contextualized meanings of these identity factors. The findings indicate that these identity dimensions align with the four tenets of sustainable learning in education, reflecting the teachers’ orientations toward sustainable language teaching practices. This study contributes to our knowledge of language teachers’ shared identities and offers important implications for language teacher professional development.

Provoking novice teacher development: Cognition-and-emotion in learning-to-teach

Recently, increased attention has been drawn to the crucial role of emotions in developing language teacher cognition. Arguing against the secondary role of emotions in cognitive development, a Vygotskian Sociocultural Theoretical perspective views cognition-and-emotion as basic components of human consciousness, the dialectical relationship between them being captured in the concept of perezhivanie. Building on recent expansions of Vygotsky's concept of perezhivanie (Lantolf & Swain, 2019b) and distinguishing between affect, feeling, and emotion, this article explores the complex interplay between cognition-and-emotion and its link to provoking the psychological development of two novice teachers as they progress through their teaching practicum during their MA TESOL Program in North America. Utilizing multiple data sources, including each novice teacher's dialogic reflective teaching journal, professional development plan, and final reflective essay, we qualitatively analyze instances of cognitive/emotional dissonance that emerged and the working over of these instances with the responsive mediation of the practicum supervisor. Our findings reveal how the practices of second language teacher education have the potential to create mediational spaces for novice teachers to work through and make sense of their emotional experiences as well as to foreground affect, feeling, and emotion as a shared social endeavor.

“Indulge in a Little Chaos”: Assistant Language Teachers’ Cognition and Pedagogical Knowledge Development Through the Lens of Complex Dynamic System Theory

Teacher cognition has been a major topic of interest in applied linguistics as researchers have worked toward “better understanding the fullness of the work of teaching, a fullness that has proved complex and problematic” (Burns et al., 2015, p. 585). This qualitative study draws upon participant interview data in order to analyze and understand language teacher cognition and pedagogical knowledge development of an under-represented cohort—foreign assistant language teachers (ALTs) in Japan. Participants (n=35) were current or former ALTs with 1 to 19 years of experience working as team teachers in Japan. Interview data was transcribed and coded according to six common features of complex dynamic systems: initial condition, unpredictability, nested structure, non-hierarchic networks, feedback loops, and self-organization (Kiss, 2012). Findings show that ALTs’ ability to acquire and operationalize pedagogical knowledge is highly dependent on the maneuver that they must undergo in working within the local Japanese contexts—as opposed to those in their home countries—and in relation to their colleagues who have a variety of individual traits, pedagogical beliefs, and team-teaching practices. This article serves as evidence that language teacher cognition regarding pedagogical knowledge development can be aptly understood through the lens of complex systems theory.

Emily Is an Egg: An Example of a Narrative Analysis Approach to Identifying the Antecedents of Critical Language Teacher Cognition

This article presents a theoretically grounded methodological approach to investigate the interplay between language teacher cognition and critical language teacher identity development. To answer the question as to what social, cultural, historical, and political aspects lead teachers to position themselves as language teachers for social justice, positioning analysis (Bamberg, 1997) is used to identify the antecedents of a critical language teacher’s cognition in discourses vis-a-vis their development of critical consciousness. Positioning analysis can help us better understand critical language teacher cognition, their processes of becoming critical language teachers, and their development of critical language teacher identity and social positionings because it comprises not only the analysis of the content of a narrative, but also the interaction, as well as the social, cultural, political, and economic context in which such a narrative is constructed. To account for the long-term aspects of critical language teacher cognition, the analysis focuses on the narratives from the period before formal teacher training and how teachers position themselves and others within the story world, the storytelling world, and amidst dominant discourses. Followed by its report, I address a key pedagogical implication for the development of critical language teachers.

Cognition-in-interaction: A Discursive Psychological Perspective of Novice Language Teacher Cognition

Teacher cognition has been an important agenda of language teacher education in recent decades, and it has advanced the field’s understanding of L2 teachers’ work. Thus far, language teacher cognition has been understood from different epistemological perspectives and researched with different methodological approaches. Given that teacher cognition is social and situational, more research is needed from an emic perspective to understand how teachers develop and renew their cognitions in their professional context. This paper adopts a discursive psychological perspective on teacher cognition, investigating novice teacher cognition using applied conversation analysis. As part of a more extensive study, the study offers an in-depth analysis of novice Chinese EFL teachers’ thinking, knowing, understanding, conceptualising, and stance-taking regarding language teaching. The teachers were recruited through a combination of convenience and snowball sampling strategies. The dataset includes 330 minutes of classroom teaching, 217 minutes of interviews, and 605 minutes of video-based guided reflection on teaching. The data revealed the key theme in teachers’ understanding of 1) focusing on linguistic knowledge, 2) establishing teacher authority, and 3) developing practical pedagogical knowledge. The findings reveal teachers’ moment-by-moment cognition-in-interaction and multiple roles in facilitating learning. Substantial implications are put forward for teacher learning and teacher education.

English Language Teachers’ Maxims in Evaluating Materials: A Case Study from Iran

While research on second language teacher cognition (SLTC) has significantly developed over the past three decades, this line of inquiry has not paid adequate attention to material development/evaluation as compared to the key role that materials play in teachers’ daily practice. In response to this gap, in this study we adopted the theoretical stance of teacher maxims as part of SLTC, and explored eight Iranian English language teachers’ maxims in relation to material evaluation. Data were collected from a researcher-adapted questionnaire and semi-structured interviews, and analyzed based on content analysis. Data analyses revealed that the teachers evaluated their implemented material in light of both positive and negative aspects, with the positive sides being more pedagogical and the negative dimensions being more institutional and sociocultural. Additionally, the teachers’ maxims indicated that materials should not only serve pedagogical issues, but they should also embrace emotions and sociocultural particularities so that educational stakeholders, especially students, develop socio-educational capitals. Based on the findings, we provide implications for teacher educators to run professional development courses that embrace personal, interpersonal, and sociocultural particularities in the courses to enhance teachers’ awareness of the role materials play in their SLTC growth

Advances in Research on Language Teacher Cognition: An Introduction to the Special Issue

An oft-cited conceptualization of teacher cognition couches it as “the unobservable cognitive dimension of teaching—what teachers know, believe and think” (Borg, 2003, p. 81). While the term “unobservable” in Borg’s definition implies, or even emphatically states, that a hidden body of knowledge, beliefs, and thoughts informs teacher behavior, this hidden dimension was “un-observable” in early conceptualizations of teaching (Borg, 2019; Burns, et al., 2015). Dominated for long by the process-product interpretation (Dunkin & Biddle, 1974), teaching was primarily viewed in terms of observable instructional behaviors (e.g., wait time practices, patterns of questioning) that were judged with regard to how effectively they influenced student achievement outcomes (Verloop, et al., 2001). Language teacher education also followed suit and as posited by Gatbonton (1999), formerly a major share of the theoretical base for language teacher education came from studies of overt classroom behaviors. However, teaching was subsequently recognized as cognition-backed and knowledge-informed performance. As best reflected in Borg’s (2019, p. 2) words, although teaching involves observable behaviors, it “is not a purely behavioral enterprise; in the same way that icebergs have an exposed surface beneath which lies a significant hidden mass, teachers’ behaviors are also powerfully shaped by a complex range of unseen influences”. [First Paragraph]

Pedagogical Reasoning for Speaking Instruction: A Longitudinal Study of Novice Language Teachers’ Cognition

Pedagogical reasoning, as one of the major components of teacher knowledge base, is crucially important in teacher education. Motivated by the dearth of research in this area, this study investigated the pedagogical reasoning of four novice language teachers in relation to speaking instruction in order to further our understanding of language teacher cognition. For this purpose, a qualitative approach was adopted and classroom observations and post-observation stimulated recall interviews were conducted over a period of eight months. The analysis of the data related to pedagogical reasoning episodes and reasoning complexity indicated that novice teachers employed varied pedagogical arguments for different aspects of teaching speaking to justify their pedagogical decisions, which included instruction-based, students-based, teacher-based, and context-based arguments. The findings also pointed to the developmental changes in terms of the complexity and comprehensiveness of novice teachers’ pedagogical reasoning. Although they initially tended to focus primarily on the subject matter and instructional activities, their reasoning gradually expanded to include students’ cognitive and affective characteristics. The findings of this study contribute to the research on the teacher knowledge base and cognition. Having a clear understanding of novice teachers’ pedagogical reasoning and how they utilize it to explain their classroom practices provides us with valuable insights into the process of learning to teach.

Dialogic Restorying: A Novel Methodology for Provoking Second Language Teacher Development Across the Career Span

Grounded in Vygotskian sociocultural theory, we propose a novel methodology for second language teacher cognition research called dialogic restorying. We exemplify this methodological innovation by presenting a qualitative longitudinal project in which we prompted L2 teachers to revisit and restory what Veresov (2017) calls “dramatic moments” extracted from reflections they wrote throughout their learning-to-teach experiences in a 2-year MA TESL program (see Johnson, Verity, & Childs, 2020; 2023). These practicing teachers engaged in dialogic restorying with the interviewer by reflecting on the importance of these dramatic moments and their continuing influence on how they orient to teaching in their current instructional contexts two to three years after graduation. Mutual engagement in dialogic restorying not only allowed access into these L2 teachers’ perceptions of the significance of their learning-to-teach experiences but also opened up the potential for these interviews to be meaningful encounters that continued to have developmental value for the teacher-participants. We contend that dialogic restorying yields important longitudinal insights into L2 teachers’ developmental trajectories while also bringing to the surface the importance of recognizing the mediational influence that research methodology can, and from our perspective, should have on participants in investigations of L2 teacher development across the career span.

Evolution of Approaches to Teacher Cognition and Teacher Identity: A Conceptual Conversation

In this paper, as two TESOL practitioners, our purpose is to capture our reflections on how conceptual approaches to teacher learning have evolved over the years to highlight the interplay between teacher cognition and teacher identity. We also seek to decrease the distance between ourselves and our academic writing, essentially emerging from behind the conventions of academic writing to discuss concepts in a conversational tone, hopefully making them more accessible to a larger audience of practitioners and scholars. In discussing our ongoing negotiation of theoretical orientations, we have been able to reflect on the influence of the language teacher cognition research base on the wider field of language teacher identity research. The main take-away is that we can better illustrate the complexity involved in the practice of language teaching and the process of becoming language teachers if we combine the two in complementary ways: teachers’ individual cognitive and metacognitive processes involved in their professional learning and their situatedness in social, cultural, political, and economic discourses.

Exploring English language teachers’ beliefs about future readiness: Developing pedagogical practices for the 21st century

Cognitions, and specifically beliefs, play a critical role in the practices teachers are willing to implement. Beliefs become particularly impactful when teachers are called upon to adapt, adjust and innovate, as is characteristic of language teaching in the 21st century and teaching during a health crisis such as a pandemic. Anchored in the field of language teacher cognition, this article presents a qualitatively driven mixed methods study of English language teachers’ beliefs about language teaching and learning in the 21st century. We explored the beliefs of 74 secondary-level English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers in an attempt to better understand beliefs that were shared among study participants. These teachers had all elected to take part in a new English language program in Israel that seeks to promote 21st century practices. Three categories of beliefs were identified. These include: (1) employing multiple and varied teaching methods; (2) demonstrating adaptability alongside digital literacy; and (3) collaborating and employing interdisciplinary practices. We have defined these categories as ‘precursor beliefs to willingness’. We present their manifestation in the collected data and discuss suggestions for how they can be cultivated at the initial teacher education level and through ongoing professional development.

From the Editor

[First part only] Dear Readers, As a journal with an international readership, this issue offers perspectives from many cultural contexts, including Australia, China, Iran, Korea, Thailand, the U.S.A. and Vietnam. As usual, the articles that we accept for publication must offer findings that can be applied to other educational contexts so we hope many of the articles will be useful for your own teaching or research. Look forward to our next special issue on Advances in Research on Language Teacher Cognition to be published as part of our August 2023 issue. Another special issue, Between Indisposition and Perseverance: Disrupted Language Teacher Identities in Times of Uncertainty is scheduled for May 2024. Maggie Sokolik, Founder and Publisher of TESL-EJ has announced the intention to create a series of books each featuring a collection of articles from TESL-EJ on specific topics. The first such volume will feature a collection of articles by the late Vance Stevens drawn from his work on the “On the Internet” series as well as other sources. Vance’s family has endorsed the project. Income from the volume will be split evenly between the TESOL Scholarship Fund for Vance Stevens and TESL-EJ, which now requires more funds to support our online platform and the registration of DOIs for our articles. Passages. With this volume, we welcome three new co-editors, Clara Vaz Bauler (Adelphi University, New York), Clayton Lehman (Freelance) and Burcu Gökgöz Kurt (Dumlupınar University, Turkey). All three scholars have distinguished themselves by the quality and timeliness of the articles which they had peer reviewed, which led us to ask them to come aboard as editors. We also thank William S. Pearson (University of Exeter) who has been forced to step down as a co-editor due to his commitments at the university. Thanks to recent reviewers. We thank the reviewers of all submissions that had reached a decision since our last issue – regardless of whether the paper was accepted, declined or revisions requested. We are grateful to the following scholars, some of whom have reviewed two or more papers during the current period: Abdul Syahid, Akihiro Saito, Ali Asiri, Amira Albagshi, Anh Ton-Nu, Anita Lie, Ann E. Roemer, Aránzazu García-Pinar, Arezou Maleki, Aurelio Vilbar, Aydan Irgatoğlu, Azran Azmee Kafia, Azran Azmee Kafia, Behrang Mohammad-Salehi, Betsy Gilliland, Chahrazed Mirza, Clayton Lehman, Colin William Campbell, Cuong Huy Pham, Daisy Casipit, Davey Young, David Imamyartha, Duy Van Vu, Eli Hinkel, Ella Alhudithi, Erhan Aslan, Erin Singer, Evi Puspitasari, Hamid Allami, Hamid Bahador, Hoang Nguyen, Holden Kenneth Alcazaren, Hülya Ipek, Intissar Yahia, Ismail Xodabande, Jardel Coutinho Dos Santos, John Chun Yin Wong, Khusnul Khotimah, Kuang Li, Lee Hughes, Lee Hughes, Manfred Man-Fat Wu, Mariana A. Ricklefs, Marta Halaczkiewicz, Marzieh Bagherkazemi, Matthew Nall, Mehmet Bardakçi, Miriam Faine, Mohammad Kazemian, Mohammad N. Karimi, Monica Gonzalez Smith, Nobuhiro Kamiya, Noraini Zulkepli, Onur Ergunay, Özgehan Uştuk, Peter Ilic, Ryan Spring, Semahat Aysu, Sibel Söğüt, Siti Tamah, Sophia Skoufaki, Ufuk Atas, Vijayakumar Chintalapalli, W.S. Pearson, Xirui Cai, and Yuri Yarin. Best, Thomas N. Robb, Ph.D. For the editorial team

Teacher cognition about oral skill development in the foreign language classroom: A literature review from Norway and Sweden

The study of language teacher cognition (LTC) allows us to understand better language teaching regarding what teachers know, how they come to know it, and how they draw on their knowledge. Due to the recently increasing LTC research interest but simultaneously lack of synthesis and overview in Norway and Sweden, a descriptive review of the literature was conducted. Results show a great variety of topics in both countries. However, multilingualism in Norway and assessment in Sweden stand out as particularly well-researched. In addition, results also show little research collaboration among two educationally-similar countries regarding LTC. In this sense, this literature review was initiated with an a priori interest in identifying LTC research on oral skill development that would allow the establishment of joint research ventures among the authors in both countries.