Language Massive Open Online Research Articles

The effectiveness of LMOOCs on participants’ attitudinal learning

This study investigated participants’ perceived attitudinal learning in language massive open online courses (LMOOCs). A mixed-method design was used to evaluate the attitudinal learning outcomes of 151 participants who completed the attitudinal learning questionnaire at the middle and end of the course, as well as 10 participants who participated in interviews. The questionnaire was used to measure four areas of attitudinal learning: cognitive, affective, behavioural and social. Results showed that participants perceived positive learning outcomes in cognitive learning, behavioural learning and social learning, providing insights into evidence that an LMOOC can be a useful tool to support positive attitudinal learning toward learning Chinese language and culture. Special attention should be paid to designing and facilitating LMOOCs in various contexts to further understand language learners and their attitudes.

What matters to LMOOC learners: content and sentiment analyses of learner course reviews

This article reports on the results of an investigation into what matters to learners of language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs). The study conducted content and sentiment analyses of learner reviews of LMOOCs to investigate the key themes/subthemes in learner reviews and learners’ emotional tendencies in the themes/subthemes as well as differences in learners’ emotional tendencies detected in themes/subthemes. The dataset for this study included 8,671 learner reviews collected from 42 College English MOOCs hosted at a major MOOC platform in China. The content analysis identified four major themes—course, instructor, learning, and platform—and nine subthemes, revealing what learners were concerned about LMOOCs. The sentiment analysis detected both similarities and differences in learners’ emotional tendencies expressed in different themes/subthemes, showing that learners as a whole held overwhelmingly positive attitudes towards the LMOOCs but had grave concerns about curriculum design, instructors’ personal traits, and learning management system. These results yield a nuanced understanding of learners’ likes and dislikes about LMOOCs and provide important implications for enhancing the design, delivery, and development of LMOOCs.

The role of EFL learners’ L2 self-identities, and authenticity gap on their intention to continue LMOOCs: insights from an exploratory partial least approach

A research study on the L2 Motivational Self-systems (L2MSS) and technology acceptance of Foreign Language Learners (EFL) in relation to Language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs) is warranted. In response, 336 Iranian EFL learners participated in three LMOOC platforms, learned language online in line with their language institutes, and answered questions about their L2 selves’ identities and attitudes toward LMOOC. The results of Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) showed that learners with positive future images of language learning and intrinsic interests in the target English culture are more likely to engage in LMOOC in the future. Further, they found LMOOC a useful and comfortable system, which enabled them to fulfill their obligations and meet others’ expectations. The authenticity gap in Iranian EFL is also worth mentioning since learners tended to have a more positive attitude toward unstructured language contexts than structured ones. As an implication of these findings, scholars should examine the factors contributing to increasing the authenticity gap in LMOOCs to accelerate the completion rate of these courses. LMOOC designers should take advantage of this issue by adding additional features to their platforms and running their courses in response to learners’ instrumentalities. The study also added a new conceptual framework to CALL, LMOOC, and language learning motivation literature.

Exploring the relationships between learners’ engagement, autonomy, and academic performance in an English language MOOC

Language learner engagement, which is receiving increased attention, has predominantly focused on offline classroom contexts, while learner engagement in language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs) remains under-explored. This study was conducted on a College English MOOC with the purpose of examining learner engagement and its relations with autonomy and academic performance in the LMOOC. In the first phase, the learning analytics (LA) approach was adopted. This involved collecting tracking data of 3673 learners from the learning management system (LMS) of the LMOOC platform. The data included three types of activities (videos watched, assignments submitted, and posts written) as indicators of learners’ online task engagement and scores on the final examination as a measure of their academic performance. In the second phase, 115 learners of the focal LMOOC responded to a survey that measured autonomy and three dimensions of engagement (behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement) typically explored in second language (L2) learning research. The results of the LA approach showed that all three indicators of online task engagement significantly predicted academic performance. The survey results indicated that only cognitive engagement among the three dimensions of engagement significantly predicted academic performance. While autonomy did not predict academic performance, cognitive engagement significantly mediated the relationship between autonomy and academic performance. Implications for LMOOC instructors, designers, and researchers are then addressed.

An Observation Protocol for Scaffolding Community of Inquiry and Its Exemplary Practices in Language MOOCs

As a response to a call to investigate the fundamental aspects regarding educational theory, research, designing and teaching of language massive open online courses (MOOCs), this study first developed a Community of Inquiry (CoI) observation protocol, to observe the existing teaching, social, and cognitive presences in language MOOCs, and tested its reliability using g-theory analysis. The results showed that the developed observation protocol is reliable, as evidenced by the large proportion of variance attributed to variation across courses rather than across raters. A follow-up d-study suggested that five and 11 raters were enough to reach moderate and substantial reliability coefficients, respectively. The study also identified exemplary practices that reflected high-level CoI presences in language MOOCs. The result not only highlighted the need to conduct observational studies to disentangle the dynamic interchanges that occur in language MOOCs, but also provided practical guidelines to language educators interested in designing and teaching their own MOOCs.

The coming of age of LMOOC research. A systematic review (2019-21)

ABSTRACT There has been an increasing interest in Language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs) in terms of research and number of courses offered, shown by the monographic volumes and systematic reviews that have been published so far. This study aims to consolidate this emerging field by exploring research from 2019 to 2021. The origin of scientific contributions, methodologies used, and the most discussed topics have been considered. Results show that the distribution of papers remain concentrated in a few countries and universities -such as Spain, UK and China, which are producing progressively more high-impact research. Also, the consistent use of mixed methods has implied the optimisation of available data and allowed for more fine-grained conclusions. Lastly, it has been proved that LMOOC publications are evolving to a more mature phase, with an increase of conceptual papers that has contributed to consolidate core theoretical foundations. It can be then said that LMOOC research has reached its coming of age and is now considered a well-established sub-field of Computer Assisted Language Learning, with substantial practice and high-quality scholarly publications.

Insight into learners’ experience in LMOOCs

The objective of our study was to understand learners’ experiences in an LMOOC (Language Massive Open Online Course) and to highlight those elements that make an LMOOC successful. Our research focused on three questions: how do learners perceive their overall experience in the course, which specific LMOOC components learners appreciate, and to what degree the course helped learners achieve their personal learning goals. For our study we collected quantitative and qualitative responses from 226 learners, and we created a unique four-dimensional analysis framework to code each unit of meaning in order to answer our research questions in a systematic way. Learners’ overall experience was rated highly, and the majority of them think the course helped them achieve their learning objectives. Consuming content was the most referred and appreciated learning activity, with video interviews being the most frequently mentioned LMOOC component as well as perceived as a high contributor to both language and cultural knowledge acquisition. Variety was another highly appreciated aspect. In general, receptive activities were the most frequently mentioned and appreciated, perhaps reflecting their preponderance in the course over productive activities. We conclude with some recommendations for future directions in LMOOC development, particularly in the communicative realm.

Distance Learning for Social Distancing through LMOOCs: From Local to Massive and Back

This chapter discusses the first step of the adaptation of a Language Massive Open Online Course (LMOOC) offered on EdX4 to be used in higher education contexts as a result of social distancing measures imposed by the COVID19 outbreak and the sudden pivot to online learning. The LMOOC contents recently underwent a process of redesign and conversion from small-scale to massive and now the opposite move is necessary: the LMOOC is to go local by becoming embedded in English classes in higher education contexts. Participants’ feedback was analyzed and compared with the criteria from a MOOC analysis matrix in terms of content variety, quality of contents and instructors, linguistic level and adequacy, level of usefulness, and user-friendliness. The paper contributes to material/course design and teacher education insomuch as the process of repurposing this English LMOOC affords insights for course/material design, addressing the pressing need for online materials which many (often underfunded) public universities are currently experiencing.

Delving into Personalisation Behaviours in a Language MOOC

Given the large amounts of learning data they generate and their flexible nature, Language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs) allow for the emergence of various forms of personalisation. This study examines how 137 language learners personalised their learning in a Language MOOC on English presentation skills. It also investigates learner-reported reasons that encouraged them to either follow a personalised learning pathway (PLP) suggested to them by the system, or choose to devise their own individual (personal) learning plan (ILP). Data were collected using three instruments: course analytics, personalised questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The results demonstrate that learners used several forms of personalisation, with an ILP being the most prominent. Learners who opted to follow a PLP cited an appropriate level of content as their primary reason for doing so, while those who chose to devise their own ILP cited having control over their learning and individual preferences as their main reasons. We conclude that LMOOC learners were more likely to devise their own learning plan than to follow a recommended plan and that the optimal design for an LMOOC is to combine both types of personalisation.

EFL Learners’ Attitudes Toward the Usability of LMOOCs: A Qualitative Content Analysis

This qualitative study aimed to explore the usability of Language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs) based on Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ attitudes. We used a qualitative questionnaire to collect data from 12 EFL learners from five cities in Iran. The study’s findings address a broad range of positive and negative aspects of LMOOCs. According to content analysis, learners have agreement on the positive aspects of LMOOC, including the learning environment, usability in language learning, inclusive educational technology, and parental presence. However, the learners’ attitudes were inconsistent regarding affective factors and feedback through LMOOCs. Finally, they believed that contextual factors are the barriers to using LMOOCs. We believe EFL authorities in Iran and other contexts should run more teacher education and professional development courses to enable teachers to learn how to teach through LMOOCs in practice.

EFL learners’ self-determination and acceptance of LMOOCs: the UTAUT model

The Language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs) is a new platform of computer assisted language learning (CALL); since most LMOOCs witness high dropout rates, empirical evidence on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ motivation to accept and utilize LMOOCs for English language learning is warranted. This study recruited 237 Taiwanese participants with experience in completing at least one LMOOC to answer question items based on the levels of three psychological needs (i.e. autonomy, competence, and relatedness) of self-determination theory (SDT) as well as the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to explore the structural relationship between the variables of SDT and UTAUT. Additionally, linear modelling was employed to test the moderating effect of motivation on the relationship between the four determinants of UTAUT, behavioural intention, and use behaviour. The results of this study report that autonomy, competence, and relatedness are significant to EFL learners’ motivation for using LMOOCs. However, while performance expectancy was not statistically significant to behavioural intention, effort expectancy and social influence were. Moreover, behavioural intention and facilitating conditions were significant to use behaviour, while motivation was a significant predictor of LMOOC use behaviour. However, the moderating effect of motivation was only significant to the relationship between the variables of social influence and behavioural intention.

Student Engagement in an EFL/SFL Speaking LMOOC during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Influence of Learners’ Social, Affective and Cognitive Dimensions

It is empirically demonstrated that Language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs) contribute to the development of learners’ foreign language (FL) competences. Thus, it is not surprising that these courses have experienced exponential growth over the last decade, being English as a foreign language (EFL) one of the most demanded subjects by LMOOC learners. However, LMOOCs face low learner engagement rates, which might be influenced by learners’ proximal and distal variables. The present study contributes to the understanding of learner engagement in an English as a FL (EFL) and Spanish as a FL (SFL) speaking LMOOC during the COVID-19 pandemic. First, it aims to understand to what extent learner engagement in the course varied during the pandemic emergency period. Second, it aims to identify the aspects of the course that promoted learner engagement, related to learners’ cognitive, affective and social dimensions. The research context is TandemMOOC, an EFL/SFL speaking LMOOC offered annually by the Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (Spain). Participants of the study were 2,585 enrolled learners in the TandemMOOC edition of 2019 or 2020. The study followed a mixed-method approach. First, data on learner participation was retrieved from the course system. Second, a post-course questionnaire with closed and open-ended items was administered to learners of the latter edition. Descriptive statistics on quantitative data and content analysis on qualitative data were carried out. Subsequent integration of findings showed that learner engagement in TandemMOOC increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, and revealed that aspects of the course linked to learners’ social dimension were the most engaging ones.

Instructional Design of Skill-Balanced LMOOC: a Case of the Russian Language MOOC for Beginners

The period of MOOCs mass production made it possible to quite accurately observe the possibilities and limitations of this type of educational products. Language massive open online courses (LMOOCs) deserve a special discussion. Basic standard features of such courses pose big challenges in language learning since it is not only and not so much about the transfer of knowledge, but about developing communicative skills. In this regard, the LMOOC aimed at mastering general language should assume balanced proportions of work on all four language skills, both receptive and productive. In the article, we analyze a case of design and implementation of a skill-balanced course of Russian as a foreign language for the A0-A1 levels. Course objectives were described, as well as characteristic features of its target audience and methodological guidelines that determined the course design. The course scenario, peculiarities of course design and pedagogy were demonstrated, as well as the relevance between language competencies development and types of activities, communication methods and toolset.

A survey on the pedagogical features of language massive open online courses

PurposeThis paper examines the pedagogical features of massive open online courses (MOOCs) for language learning–known as language MOOCs. The mainstream pedagogy of MOOCs typically involves the provision of short videos and reading materials for self-study; discussion forums, mostly for peer-to-peer interaction on course content; and machine-graded quizzes for self-assessment. For language learning, which has been conventionally understood as skill development, the pedagogical features of relevant MOOCs have yet to be comprehensively surveyed.Design/methodology/approachThis study surveyed a total of 123 language MOOCs from the major MOOC platforms. The pedagogical features shown in these courses were identified and categorised according to the types of course materials and learning activities as well as the participation of learners and instructors.FindingsEnglish was the most common language taught in the courses. Over 80% of the courses took not more than six hours to complete. Most of these courses followed the typical approach of xMOOC delivery, with video watching, reading and auto-graded assessment being the most common learning activities. Less than half of the courses included discussion as part of learning, and instructors were involved in less than 30% of the discussion.Originality/valueThe findings show that, despite the technological advances in course delivery, current language MOOCs do not differ substantially from conventional distance language learning. Yet, the utilisation of computer-assisted language learning technology and the massive student base of MOOCs for creating a virtual social community are opportunities for developing learners' language proficiency on this learning environment.

What makes a good-quality language MOOC? An empirical study of criteria to evaluate the quality of online language courses from learners’ perspectives

AbstractThis paper focuses on quality assurance in language massive open online courses (LMOOCs). It is a qualitative study that adopts the grounded theory method and analyses evaluative comments on the quality of LMOOCs from learners’ perspectives. With the data collected from 1,000 evaluations from English as a second language (ESL) learners on China’s biggest MOOC platform “iCourse”, this study examines what has influenced learners’ perceptions of LMOOCs and identifies the specific quality criteria of five types of them, including ESL courses for speaking, reading, writing, cultural studies, and integrated skills. The results of the study will lay a foundation for the establishment of a quality criteria framework for LMOOCs and provide insights into design principles for effective online language courses tailored to the diverse needs of a massive number of language learners.

Designing speaking interaction in LMOOCs: An eTandem approach

AbstractPromoting speaking interaction remains a challenge for language massive open online courses (LMOOCs), both from a pedagogical and technological standpoint. This paper describes the design process of the tandemMOOC, which exploits the massive, open and online features of MOOCs in order to offer language learners online speaking interaction practice with native speakers of their target language. The course is based on eTandem language learning principles and equips learners with the necessary competences to be able to cope with online second language (L2) speaking opportunities. Following a design-based research approach, this paper presents an analysis and discussion of seven components of the design: learning environment, facilitation dynamics, dyad configuration, task types, task topics, feedback provision, and gamification components. The analysis of the implementation of these elements results in a set of key features for the integration of L2 speaking interaction activities in LMOOCs.

What makes good LMOOCs for EFL learners? Learners’ personal characteristics and Information System Success Model

This study presents essential findings that would be advantageous to the designers and practitioners of Language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs). It reveals the key elements that contribute to successful LMOOCs, and how they are influenced by English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ personal characteristics (gender, age, and opened to experience). Nineteen research hypotheses were proposed to be statistically tested. A questionnaire, based on Delone and McLean’s Information System Success Model (ISSM), included items designed to investigate EFL learners’ personal characteristics, which was then distributed to experienced EFL LMOOC learners. The data from 172 valid copies (n = 172) were collected and analyzed with the administration of PLS-SEM modeling. The results reported that 9 out of 19 hypotheses were supported. It was determined that EFL learners’ “openness to experience” personality trait can significantly affect their opinions of service, system, and information quality of LMOOCs. Moreover, system quality, as perceived by EFL learners, was considered the significant variable for use intention and satisfaction of LMOOCs. Use intention would lead to their increased use of LMOOCs and satisfaction, and both variables would further influence their perception of the benefits that LMOOCs may provide.

The effect of content-related and external factors on student retention in LMOOCs

AbstractCommonly, low completion rates in massive open online courses have called into question the quality of their learning materials and instruction. This paper attempts to identify crucial factors of engagement and retention in language massive open online courses (LMOOCs) in the context of the open online program of Icelandic Online, a self-guided course for second language learners of Icelandic. The study seeks to explore the impact of factors associated with the course’s instructional design on engagement and retention and reveal crucial determinants of attrition. The study depends on survey and tracking data from 400 learners and qualitative data from 62 informants in one course. It builds on previous studies on student engagement and retention in LMOOCs (Friðriksdóttir, 2018, 2019). The present study identified six content-specific factors that the majority of participants considered to be important for their motivation. Some factors, such as gradual and scaffolded presentation of input, had a positive impact on retention. Furthermore, statements from learners in the study who disengaged before completing show that non-course-related factors, such as time constraints, affect LMOOC retention. The study provides a new framework for how to promote student engagement and suggests specific strategies for other LMOOC developers.

A Grounded Theory Exploration of Language Massive Open Online Courses (LMOOCs): Understanding Students’ Viewpoints

Massive open online courses (MOOCs) have been called the biggest innovation in education in 200 years for their unique attribute of being open and free to any individual with Internet access; however, their high dropout rate has led many people to be concerned or dubious about their effectiveness and applicability. The applicability of MOOCs in English for specific purposes (ESP) courses (in this case, hospitality English) needs more empirical evidence; the present study intends to help fill this gap and extend our current understanding of this issue. This study followed a grounded theory methodology to develop a theoretical model based on a constant dialogue between collected data and the literature. The results suggest that most participants had positive perceptions of language MOOCs (LMOOCs) in general, but some doubted their applicability. Most participants said they would continue to use LMOOCs for learning, depending on the attributes of specific courses. Based on the extracted data, a conceptual model for the applicability of LMOOCs is proposed.

Using learning analytics to understand collective attention in language MOOCs

Learning analytics (LA) has the potential to generate new insights into the complexities of learning behaviours in language massive open online courses (LMOOCs). In LA, the collective attention model takes an ecological system view of the dynamic process of unequal participation patterns in online and flexible learning environments. In this study, the ‘Oral Communication for EFL Learners (spring)’ on XuetangX was selected as an example with which to examine the allocation of learner attention in the context of LMOOCs. The open-flow network of collective attention was used to model the dynamics of learning behaviours to understand how different cohorts of second language (L2) learners allocated their attention at the collective level. The results showed that what distinguished high-performing L2 learners was related less to where they started with LMOOC resources or how much attention they allocated to certain learning units and more to the extent to which their attention could be maintained and circulated into other learning units. In addition, learners’ attention typically followed the pre-designed course structure each time they entered the online space. No learning resources offered in the selected LMOOC were found to dominate the collective attention flow, which suggested that L2 learners’ online engagement followed classroom learning patterns. The use of LA to understand the allocation of L2 attention at the collective level provides new perspectives on digital behaviour in LMOOCs, which may facilitate the design of cost-effective L2 resources that prevent learner overload in the information-rich age.