Language Learning Journal Research Articles

Taking communication to task once more – a further decade on

ABSTRACT Task-based language teaching (TBLT) emerged in the 1980s as a learner-centred and experiential alternative to more established and teacher-led approaches to acquiring an additional language (L2). Two decades ago, a paper published in The Language Learning Journal discussed the advantages and drawbacks of TBLT that had become apparent since its early days (Klapper 2003: Taking communication to task? A critical review of recent trends in language teaching. The Language Learning Journal 27: 33–42). A subsequent paper, one decade later, picked up where Klapper had left things (East 2015: Taking communication to task – again: what difference does a decade make? The Language Learning Journal 43, no. 1: 6–19). The present paper provides another important milestone at which to evaluate TBLT. Importantly, the decade in question (2013–2022) has witnessed a substantial expansion in interest in task-based learning. The paper begins with a brief overview of TBLT and its historical roots. It follows with a focus on four selected directions of interest that have become more apparent during this past decade: (1) teaching less commonly taught languages; (2) teaching indigenous languages; (3) technology; and (4) translanguaging. The paper concludes by considering TBLT's potential to transform societies and matters that remain unresolved.

‘Having a decent understanding of more than one language’: exploring multilingualism with secondary school students in England

ABSTRACT This study examined the linguistic lives, as well as beliefs about multilingualism, of 422 secondary school students (ages 11–16) in Lincolnshire, England. The data were collected using questionnaires, replicating Haukås et al.’s (Haukås, Å, A. Storto, and I. Tiurikova. 2021. “Developing and Validating a Questionnaire on Young Learners’ Multilingualism and Multilingual Identity.” The Language Learning Journal 49 (4): 404–419; Haukås, Å, A. Storto, and I. Tiurikova. 2022. “School Students’ Beliefs About the Benefits of Multilingualism.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, doi:10.1080/01434632.2022.2075001.) work. Whilst the sample was predominantly monolingual by typical, often binary, categorisations of language use (e.g. first language), we also found many other instances of language use that contributed to their linguistic identity. The students held divergent views about multilingualism, as in Haukås et al.'s (Haukås, Å, A. Storto, and I. Tiurikova. 2022. “School Students’ Beliefs About the Benefits of Multilingualism.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, doi:10.1080/01434632.2022.2075001.) study, yet these were less positive than in the original study. Predominantly, the students did not identify as multilingual despite studying a language at school, and felt this implied a linguistic proficiency beyond their own. Statistical analysis of group differences found that where they had exposure to languages in their personal lives (e.g. friends and family) they were more likely to feel positively about the benefits of multilingualism and its role in their future lives. The study demonstrates that even seemingly ‘monolingual’ students are exposed to a number of languages in, sometimes small, varied, ways and we propose that schools hold great, often untapped, potential as sites of exposure to language(s) and the development of multilingual identities.

A Journal on Student, Teacher, and Researcher Journal Writing

Journal writing is an open, unevaluated form of free writing that can be used by L1 and L2 students, teachers, and researchers to help them develop language fluency and proficiency, to promote reflective and critical thinking, to contribute to research activities, and to communicate with self, peers, and teachers. The main point of journal writing is to promote evaluation-free reflection and communication, and when written in the L2, to encourage fluency rather than be used as a graded and corrected assignment. This article consists of a series of journal entries about my experiences with different kinds of journal writing over many years. The entries describe “dissertation journals,” language learning journals, private and shared journals, journals for promoting critical and analytical reflection, and journals written for research purposes.

A Systematic Review of Technology Reviews in Language Teaching and Learning Journals

Technology reviews are a specific article genre published in several language teaching and learning journals. Their emergence is likely due to the proliferation of technology that facilitates and supports language acquisition. These reviews aim to increase teachers’ and learners’ awareness of the forms of technology available and succinctly describe their benefits and limitations for language teaching and learning. As education enters a new digital age, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, it is essential to determine which forms of technology support teachers’ professional learning and how they can be utilized. This article presents a systematic review of technology reviews published between 2017 and 2022 in five Q1 SCOPUS-indexed language teaching and learning journals: RELC Journal, TESOL Journal, CALICO Journal, Language Learning and Technology and Teaching English as a Second Language Electronic Journal (TESL-EJ). These five journals were the only Q1 language teaching and learning journals we identified that publish technology reviews. All 73 technology reviews published in the 5-year period in the 5 journals were reviewed. Using professional digital competence as a framework, we explore what the articles reveal about how technology is used, as well as the knowledge gaps that remain. We examine the types and features of the technology described in the reviews, the language skills and educational levels of the learners, and the pedagogical implications of technology use. We found that the technology reviews mainly introduced the technological features and functions of the reviewed technologies with less emphasis placed on their pedagogical utilities and social aspects of their use for language teaching. The article concludes with recommendations for authors and journal editors regarding the content that should be included in a technology review to ensure that it is helpful to the profession. We also offer advice to practitioners on how to benefit from technology reviews.

Special issue: new horizons in emotional literacy in traditional and virtual language learning classes

"Special issue: new horizons in emotional literacy in traditional and virtual language learning classes." The Language Learning Journal, 51(1), pp. 131–132

Teaching young adult literature in secondary L2 classrooms: a case study of The Outsiders reading programme

ABSTRACT Despite the difficulty of defining young adult literature (YAL), the benefits of it have been well recognised for adolescent learners. With the aim of exploring pedagogical approaches to L2 literature, this study reports on a YAL reading programme carried out in a secondary EFL classroom in China. To gain both teacher and student perspectives, data were collected from three main sources: semi-structured interviews with the teacher and student participants (N = 3); teacher’s reflective journal; students’ written works published on a social media platform (N = 304). Following the comprehensive approach model of L2 literature teaching [Bloemert, J., A. Paran, E. Jansen and W. van de Grift. 2019. Students’ perspective on the benefits of EFL literature education. The Language Learning Journal 47, no. 3: 371–384.], the teaching activities of the reading programme carried out over ten weeks arepresented and analysed, illustrated by samples of students’ work. Findings of the study suggest that YAL has positive effects on teenage L2 learners including interest in the story and relatable protagonists, enhanced understanding of the embedded culture, and personal growth. Teaching activities conducted in this programme are categorised into facilitating activities and reading tasks. Two principles for L2 literature teaching are drawn out of the teaching activities: providing others’ perspectives and eliciting students’ perspectives on the novel; and integrating multimodal production into literature teaching. Detailed implications for future practice are explored.

Literature in secondary EFL class: case studies of four experienced teachers’ reading programmes in China

ABSTRACT The benefits of using literature in second or foreign language teaching have been re-gaining attention and recognition in recent years. With the aim of exploring possible pedagogical approaches and teacher perceptions, this study investigates four reading programmes implemented by experienced teachers in Chinse secondary schools. Different young adult novels were used in these programmes, facilitated by such activities as keeping a reading log and explicit vocabulary learning. This exploratory multiple case study lasted for six months, collecting data from teacher participants’ reflective journals, semi-structured interviews, related documents, and artefacts. Using the framework of comprehensive approach to foreign literature teaching (Bloemert et al. 2019. Students’ perspective on the benefits of EFL literature education. The Language Learning Journal 47, no. 3: 371–384), this study finds that only two of the four dimensions were implemented by the teacher participants: language approach was used predominantly in supporting the reading programmes, while reader approach was mainly applied in writing-after-reading activities. This study provides evidence that reading-writing integration into L2 literature teaching promotes reflection on reading content and internalisation of language input. By presenting some of the difficulties and confusions teachers encountered, this study draws attention to the need for teacher training in the implementation of this pedagogical approach, alongside implications for future practice and research.

Do CLIL programmes help to balance out gender differences in content and language achievement?

ABSTRACT Since the interaction of individual variables with learning outcomes has been relatively neglected in the CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) research agenda (Doiz, A., Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J. M. (2014). CLIL and motivation: The effect of individual and contextual variables. The Language Learning Journal, 42(2), 209–224), this study aims to investigate the impact of CLIL programmes on gender-related differences in language and content achievement at the end of primary and compulsory secondary education. In line with previous investigations reporting a levelling effect of CLIL programmes on gender differences, this study seeks to show whether bilingual programmes may help to balance out gender differences in CLIL learning outcomes and whether the gender gap may vary across educational levels. To that end, discriminant and factor analyses were performed with the experimental (EFL + CLIL exposure) and control (EFL-only exposure) groups. The main finding was that the gender gap in CLIL learning outcomes is cancelled out, which could be ascribed to the hypothesised levelling effect of CLIL on gender differences in learning outcomes.

Vocabulary loading in the Studio textbook series: a 40% decline in the vocabulary input for French GCSE

ABSTRACT The vocabulary content of the French MFL curriculum in England has received criticism (Häcker, M. 2008. Eleven pets and 20 ways to express one’s opinion: the vocabulary learners of German acquire at English secondary schools. The Language Learning Journal 36, no. 2: 215–26; Tschichold, C. 2012. French vocabulary in Encore Tricolore: do learners have a chance? The Language Learning Journal 40, no. 1: 7–19) for its small size, lack of thematic variety, and poor pedagogical exploitation in textbooks. Studies also note the small vocabulary knowledge of learners in UK compared with other French learners, ostensibly at the same CEFR B1 level (David, A. 2008. Vocabulary breadth in French L2 learners. The Language Learning Journal 36, no. 2: 167–80; Milton, J. 2006b. Language lite: learning French vocabulary in school. Journal of French Language Studies 16, no. 2: 187–205). This study examines the vocabulary content of the Studio series of French textbooks, first published in 2010, to see whether this situation has improved. Analysis shows the vocabulary loading of the textbooks has fallen over 40% compared with the previous books analysed by Tschichold (2012. French vocabulary in Encore Tricolore: do learners have a chance? The Language Learning Journal 40, no. 1: 7–19). This indicates a significant decline in the standard of learning for GCSE French since the vocabulary size of learners is so closely associated with their overall language proficiency. There are problems too with the thematic variety of teaching, the regularity of input, and the recycling of the lexical content. We argue this results from the guidance of advisory bodies such as the National Centre for Excellence for Language Pedagogy (NCELP) and the latest curriculum design (Department for Education. 2015. Modern Foreign Languages GCSE Subject Content. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/485567/GCSE_subject_content_modern_foreign_langs.pdf (accessed 30 August, 2020)) MFL subject content so there is no clear standard for textbook writers to work to. Further, the guidance of advisory bodies such as the National Centre for Excellence for Language Pedagogy (NCELP) and the latest curriculum design (Department for Education. 2021. GCSE MFL Subject Content Review. https://consult.education.gov.uk/ebacc-and-arts-and-humanities-team/gcse-mfl-subject-content-review/supporting_documents/GCSE%20MFL%20subject%20content%20document.pdf (accessed 14 March, 2021)), which damage standards of attainment in MFL by advocating minimal vocabulary content and a departure from thematic input.

In Conversation with Ernesto Macaro on English Medium Instruction

Ernesto Macaro is Emeritus Professor of Applied Linguistics in the Department of Education at the University of Oxford, UK. He was the founding director of the EMI Oxford Research Group (formerly the Centre for Research and Development in English Medium Instruction) in the Department of Education. His research focuses on second language learning strategies and on the interaction between teachers and learners in second language classrooms and in classrooms where English is the medium of instruction. He has published widely on these topics, including in journals such as Language Teaching, Modern Language Journal, Language Learning Journal, Language Teaching Research and International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. He is also the author of English Medium Instruction: Content and Language in Policy and Practice (2018). Before becoming a teacher educator and researcher, he worked as a language teacher in secondary schools in the UK. His most recent work explores certification programmes for English medium instruction teachers in higher education and the transition from secondary to tertiary English medium instruction programmes.

‘There’s an App for That!’ Writing Technology Reviews for Academic Journals

Technology reviews are becoming an increasingly common genre within English language teaching and learning journals. This is due to the proliferation of technologies and their affordance in language learning. Although journals provide editorial guidelines for how to write technology reviews, they can be quite general. This short article offers some practical considerations and ideas, and includes published technology review as an example in the online appendix, showing the rhetorical moves for writing technology reviews in the field of English language teaching and learning.

CALL research: Where are we now?

AbstractThis article considers the current position of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) research by producing an integrative synthetic overview of all the articles published in three leading international CALL journals: ReCALL (in its 31st year of publication), the CALICO Journal (its 36th) and Computer Assisted Language Learning journal (its 32nd) over a sustained recent period: 2006–2016. They are judged sufficiently representative to enable broad trends to be detected and the sector’s strengths and weaknesses to be identified. The focus is on CALL research’s international reach, the range of topics researched and the nature of the studies themselves. The findings suggest that CALL research is growing internationally in the number of countries and researchers involved. A wide range of topics is researched, but there is a concentration of papers published on a cluster of popular areas. Consequently, fewer articles are published on a large number of CALL topics or, in some cases, rarely studied. The research methods employed are rigorous: in writing, structure, theory, literature awareness, and discussion and presentation of results, yet there are still weaknesses. Most empirical studies are small scale: based on one institution, a small cohort of students, over a short period of time and seldom followed up. Based on these findings, suggestions are made with a view to broadening and strengthening CALL research through targeting neglected strategic areas with special journal issues and conferences, and improving the quality of research projects. Key areas for future research are proposed.

Identity, investment and language learning strategies of two Syrian students in Syria and Britain

ABSTRACTThis paper reports on a longitudinal phenomenographic inquiry into understanding how two postgraduate Syrian students’ ways of approaching English language learning in their homelands influenced the shape of their personal study abroad goals, language strategy use and L2 identity. It is guided by Norton’s [(2013). Identity and language learning: Extending the conversation (2nd ed.). Bristol: Multilingual Matters] conceptualisation of motivation as investment in learning a new language, and Hajar’s [(2016). Motivated by visions: A tale of a rural learner of English. The Language Learning Journal. doi:10.1080/09571736.2016.1146914] distinction between compulsory and voluntary strategies. The qualitative data suggest that the two participants acted agentively to accomplish their academic qualifications in the UK. However, the adjustments of the participant raised by a well-off, well-educated family and educated at outstanding private establishments to the new context appeared to be less taxing than the case of the other participant who came from a disadvantaged background in Syria. The former’s positive prior language learning experiences along with the assessment methods of his MA programme helped him to build a positive linguistic self-concept in the UK, using diverse voluntary language strategies. This study reveals how strategy use and L2 identity development of learners in similar contexts might be influenced by educational policy and distribution of resources. From this qualitative longitudinal study, pedagogical implications and areas for ongoing research are suggested.

Trends in Qualitative Research in Three Major Language Teaching and Learning Journals, 2006–2015

This study examines the current trends and complexities in qualitative research in three major language teaching andlearning journals published from 2006–2015. After categorizing 781 articles into quantitative, qualitative, mixedmethods, and other approaches, 226 qualitative research articles were closely examined and further analyzed in termsof four dimensions: approaches, methods, number of participants, and length of research period. The findingsshowed that case study was the most frequently employed approach, followed by ethnography. The study alsoidentified that while interviews, observations, discourse analysis, and conversation analysis were relatively wellutilized, more than 150 different data collection and analysis methods were used. Although the results of the studyshow a tendency to use certain approaches and methods in qualitative research more than others, they alsodemonstrate the complexity and diversity of qualitative research and the difficulty in clarifying and categorizingtypes of qualitative research in language teaching and learning.

Popular Culture, English Out-of-class Activities, and Learner Autonomy among Highly Proficient Secondary Students in Hong Kong

This paper reports on how and why proficient learners of English in Hong Kong participated in popular culture, out-of-class activities, with an emphasis on their development of learner autonomy. Autonomy in language learning is defined as an individual's ability and responsibility to take charge of his or her own learning [1]. Out-of-class learning plays an important role in language learning and learner autonomy [2]. However, to most Hong Kong students, opportunities to learn English outside of classroom may not be obviously found but they do exist at a low cost, for example, popular culture like English movies, free English TV channels, online resources, social networking [2-4]. Most local learners seldom engaged in actual autonomous practices but they must seize the chances to practise the target language [5, 6]. Thus, the study aimed at exploring how students can make better use of popular culture, out-of-class learning and foster greater learner autonomy in the local context. Six highly proficient secondary school students who reported to have participated in out-of-class learning were selected to join this largely qualitative multiple-case study. By way of semi-structured interviews and language learning journals, the study found that the case participants mainly engaged in self-initiated, interest-driven out-of-class learning, through which they improved their school performance and started to internalize English learning for their personal purposes and develop learner autonomy. It is also suggested that out-of-class learning and school performance promoted the growth of each other. Teachers should recognize the use of interest-driven, popular culture out-of-class activities to further establish the link between out-of-class and classroom-based learning.

Syntactic Complexity at the Intermediate Level in EFL Writing by Early Balanced Bilinguals

Syntactic Complexity at the Intermediate Level in EFL Writing by Early Balanced Bilinguals

Understanding Arab students’ challenges, strategy use and future vision while writing their Masters dissertations at a UK University: a qualitative inquiry

ABSTRACTThis paper aims to explore the strategic learning efforts and future vision of a group of Arab postgraduate students studying in a British University while writing a dissertation in English (about 15,000–20,000 words). It is guided by Dörnyei’s [2009. “The L2 Motivational Self System.” In Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self, Chapter 2, edited by Z. Dörnyei and E. Ushioda, 9–42. Bristol: Multilingual Matters] concept of ‘possible selves’, and Hajar’s [2016. “Motivated by Visions: A Tale of a Rural Learner of English.” The Language Learning Journal 1–17. doi:10.1080/09571736.2016.1146914.] distinction between compulsory and voluntary strategies. Semi-structured interviews with each participant were used to collect data. The data suggest that the participants’ language learning goals and associated strategy use for writing a dissertation were essentially influenced by the practices of their dissertation supervisors, who seemed to adopt a ‘dynamic assessment’ approach. The adoption of dynamic assessment by most supervisors helped the participants to strengthen the vision of their ideal L2 self, and make their goals clearer and more specific. From this qualitative study, practical recommendations to develop the effectiveness (quality) of Masters dissertation supervision at UK universities were made, and areas for ongoing research were suggested.

Suggestions on Writing for Publication in Language Learning Journals

This article provides suggestions on writing for journals in the field of language learning. These suggestions are presented in the three sections. The first section discusses how to begin. Suggestions in this section are that we appreciate the benefits of writing for publication, develop good ideas, work efficiently, ponder options as to what type of writing to do, choose a good topic, consider replication of other's research, and cooperate with others. The second section presents suggestions on doing the actual writing. Here, it is suggested that we connect ideas, delve deeply into the ideas we present, strive to write the reader friendlymanner, use visuals, and improve our writing by noticing how other journal authors write. The third section concerns relations with editors. The advice given is that we choose carefully the journal to which we submit our work, follow that journal's directions to contributors, include a cover letter, be prepared to wait patiently, welcome critical feedback from editors and reviewers, and view editors as colleagues. Received: 10th November 1998; Revised: 31st December 1998; Accepted: 5th January 1999How to cite: Jacobs, G. (2015). Suggestions on Writing for Publication in Language Learning Journals.TEFLIN Journal - A publication on the teaching and learning of English - A publication on the teaching and learning of English, 10(1), 1-16. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.15639/teflinjournal.v10i1/1-16Permalink/DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15639/teflinjournal.v10i1/1-16Cited by (Google Scholar)

Using reciprocal peer teaching to develop learner autonomy: An action research project with a beginners' Chinese class

Peer teaching has been used as a mechanism for promoting learner autonomy in a range of language learning contexts. This article explores how absolute beginners in a Chinese class can engage in reciprocal peer teaching (RPT) from the start of their language learning experience and how this contributes to the development of their autonomy as learners in addition to improving their linguistic competence in Chinese. RPT, as it is implemented in this study, entails students working in teaching teams, with each team taking responsibility in turn to teach the whole class during a short beginners' course in Chinese. The study was conducted as an action research project in three cycles, with modifications to the form and content of students' engagement in each cycle based on analysis of data from students' reflective language learning journals and group reports. The findings suggest that the cooperative and challenging activity of RPT fostered students' individual responsibility and motivation for learning while at the same time developing group solidarity in the classes. Individual and group development together served to promote the learner autonomy. The findings also suggest that the reciprocal element, whereby each student identifies with both teacher and learner roles at some point during the course, is critical in this intervention, functioning as a catalyst for students' activities.

Empirical studies on foreign language learning and teaching in China (2008–2011): A review of selected research

In this review, we highlight 60 articles from 1,120 empirical studies in leading language learning and teaching journals published on the Chinese mainland during the years 2008–2011. In preparing the review, we have found Chinese researchers addressing a wide range of topics including language learners’ cognitive processes, their language performance, and language teachers’ professional development. The selected studies document a variety of approaches to improving the teaching of the English language and meeting the demand for proficient English graduates in China. In addition, we have observed that leading Chinese journals have become more receptive to empirical studies and have published an increasing number of qualitative and mixed method studies. However, we also note that research scholarship in those journals is still beset with problems and there is a pressing need for our Chinese colleagues to become ‘discerning’ producers of scholarship. For this reason, we conclude this review with recommendations to Chinese journals, to help them play an even more significant role in promoting high quality empirical research in the future.