Language Environment Research Articles

The effects of family, culture and sex on linguistic development across 20 languages.

Languages vary in their complexity; caregivers vary in the way they structure their communicative interactions with children; and boys and girls can differ in their language skills. Using a multilevel modelling approach, we explored how these factors influence the path of language acquisition for young children growing up around the world (mean age 2-years 9-months; 56 girls). Across 43 different sites, we analysed 103 mother-child pairs who spoke 3,170,633 utterances, 16,209,659 morphemes, divided across 20 different languages: Afrikaans, Catalan, Cantonese, Danish, Dutch, English, Farsi, French, German, Hebrew, Icelandic, Irish, Italian, Japanese, Mandarin, Norwegian, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish and Turkish. Using mean length of utterance (MLU) as a measure of language complexity and developmental skill, we found that variation in children's MLU was significantly explained by (a) between-language differences; namely the rate of child MLU growth was attuned to the complexity of their mother tongue, and (b) between-mother differences; namely mothers who used higher MLUs tended to have children with higher MLUs, regardless of which language they were learning and especially in the very young (<2.5 years-old). Controlling for family and language environment, we found no evidence of MLU sex differences in child speech nor in the speech addressed to boys and girls. By modelling language as a multilevel structure with cross-cultural variation, we were able to disentangle those factors that make children's pathway to language different and those that make it alike. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The speech of 103 mother-child pairs from 20 different languages showed large variation in the path of early language development. Language, family, but not the sex of the child, accounted for a significant proportion of individual differences in child speech, especially in the very young. The rate at which children learned language was attuned to the complexity of their mother tongue, with steeper trajectories for more complex language. Results demonstrate the relative influence of culture, family, and sex in shaping the path of language acquisition for different children.

Data-driven prediction of early language delay at Youth Health Care Services in the Netherlands

Abstract Introduction Language development in early childhood significantly impacts future academic success, social interaction, and emotional well-being. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a prediction model using data on developmental milestones and parents’ socio-economic background known at age 2, and translate the results into an interactive digital dashboard and pilot it with Youth Health Care (YHC) professionals and parents. Methods A mixed-method study on retrospective cohort of children attending YHC at age 2, followed up until age 4. Data on language development, gender, parental education, and home language environment were obtained from YHC digital dossiers and linked to parental socio-economic status characteristics, and perinatal outcomes and healthcare costs using a secure remote access environment of Statistics Netherlands. Random forest and logistic regression models were computed with language development at age 4 as an outcome, initially using all available data at age 2 as predictors and then with a restricted model using variables readily available in YHC settings. Models performance was assessed using sensitivity, specificity, and AUC value. Results were visualized through an interactive dashboard and pilot-tested in simulated consultations. Results Among 9,148 children, 13.2% had language development delay at age 4. The full model had an AUC of 0.78, while the restricted model (gender, parental education, language environment, and language development), achieved an AUC of 0.77. YHC professionals and parents recognized the value of individualized, data-driven risk assessment for potential language delay to stimulate the discussion of preventive interventions. Conclusions A good quality prediction model for language development at age 4 can be derived from just a few background characteristics of the child and parents at age 2. The digital dashboard presents a practical approach of integrating prediction model results into daily YHC practice. Key messages • Language development at age of 4 can be predicted as early as age of 2 using just a few background characteristics of child and parents, which presents a window of opportunity for prevention. • The digital dashboard presents a practical approach of integrating prediction model results into preventive care practice.

Performance of ChatGPT in medical licensing examinations in countries worldwide: A systematic review and meta-analysis protocol.

In November 2022, the online artificial intelligence (AI) chatbot ChatGPT was released to the public, and swiftly garnered global attention because of its ability to provide detailed answers to complex queries. In medical field, ChatGPT has shown great potential to be used in medical education and has excelled in many English-language medical licensing examinations. However, due to the variability of medical licensing examinations in different countries, and ChatGPT's particular proficiency in English, the previous literatures showed that ChatGPT is unable to pass medical licensing examinations from non-English-speaking countries or those not administered in English. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to review whether ChatGPT can demonstrate consistent accuracy across diverse medical licensing examinations and be used in medical education across countries. In this study protocol, we aimed to analyze and review the differences in performance of ChatGPT in medical exams in various language environments and countries, as well as its potential in medical education. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted using PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus to collect papers testing the performance of ChatGPT in medical licensing examinations. We imported all the collected literatures into Rayyan and screened the literatures based on the selection criteria and exclusion criteria. The risk of bias and quality of included studies was assessed by using Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). Data from included studies was extracted into an Excel spreadsheet. All of the above processes were completed by two reviewers independently. A third reviewer was consulted in cases of disagreement. Finally, we provided both quantitative and qualitative analysis of the findings from the included studies. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42024506687.

Cross-cultural adaptation and validation of the Chinese version of the Trauma Resiliency Scale (tRS-18)

BackgroundTrauma is a prevalent issue in public health, where individuals who experience physical injuries are also at risk of compromised mental health. Psychological resilience is considered a positive indicator that can predict the prognosis of trauma patients throughout their traumatic experiences. Currently, there is a lack of tools in China for measuring the psychological resilience of trauma patients. The aim of this study was to translate and cross-culturally adapt the Trauma Resiliency Scale (tRS-18) into Chinese and to test its reliability and validity in China.MethodsThe Trauma Resiliency Scale (tRS-18) was translated into a Chinese version suitable for the Chinese language environment using the Brislin translation model. A convenience sampling method was used to select 588 trauma patients as study subjects. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, 14-day test-retest reliability, and split-half reliability. Validity was examined through the content validity index, structural validity, and convergent validity. Structural validity was specifically evaluated through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).ResultsThe total variance explained by the single-factor model in the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of the Chinese version of the tRS-18 was 62.048%, and the factor loading of each item exceeded 0.4. The results of the CFA indicated that the model demonstrated a favorable fit index (X2/df = 1.620; RMSEA = 0.046; SRMR = 0.026; NFI = 0.945; CFI = 0.978; GFI = 0.927; TLI = 0.975; IFI = 0.978). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the reliability index was 0.963, the test-retest reliability was 0.970, and the split-half reliability was 0.964, which were all within the reference value range.ConclusionThe Chinese version of the tRS-18 has good validity and reliability and can be used as an assessment tool for trauma resilience in trauma patients.

The Linguistic Ecologic Analysis of the Error-prone Emergency Prevention and Control Slogans during the COVID-19 Epidemic in China

As a typical form of emergency language service, the emergency prevention and control slogans (EPCS) play an important role in the prevention and control of social emergencies in China. However, due to the characteristics of "emergency", the prevention and control slogans are errorprone, which can cause a negative impact on the language ecology. Based on the theory of linguistic ecology, this paper conducts a thorough analysis of the error-prone slogans during the COVID-19 epidemic in China. First, error-prone slogans can be divided into four categories from the internal language ecological environment: language standardization errors, application appropriateness errors, content adaptability errors, and ethical compliance errors. Second, this paper assesses three aspects of error-prone slogans from external social ecological environment: the degree of errors, the distribution of errors, and the citizens' normative willingness. Finally, the paper puts forward suggestions to prevent language conflict, stop language exclusion, eliminate language dissent and govern the language environment in order to reduce error-prone emergency prevention and control slogans, improve the quality of emergency language services, and build a harmonious ecological environment inside and outside the language.

The Direct Method in Language Teaching: A Literature Review of Its Effectiveness

The Direct Method in language teaching, which emphasizes teaching language through immersion and avoiding the use of the learner’s native language, has been widely used in educational settings for over a century. Its focus on oral communication, everyday vocabulary, and inductive grammar teaching has made it a popular approach. However, debates about its effectiveness compared to more modern teaching methods have persisted, particularly in terms of long-term language acquisition and proficiency. This literature review aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the Direct Method by analyzing studies conducted across various educational contexts. The review examines how this method impacts learners’ speaking, listening, and overall communicative competence. By synthesizing both qualitative and quantitative research, the study provides a comprehensive view of the strengths and limitations of the Direct Method. The findings indicate that while the Direct Method improves oral proficiency and listening skills in the short term, it may not be as effective for developing reading and writing skills. Studies show that the method fosters greater student engagement and motivation but may not adequately address the complexities of advanced grammar and academic language. Furthermore, the method’s effectiveness depends heavily on the teacher’s skill in creating immersive language environments. In conclusion, the Direct Method offers valuable benefits for beginner and intermediate learners, especially in communicative aspects of language. However, it requires supplementation with other approaches to develop comprehensive language proficiency. Future research should explore ways to integrate the Direct Method with more advanced instructional techniques for a balanced approach to language teaching.

Linguistic Diversity and Inclusion: Exploring International Students Attitudes Towards Their Own Accents and Those of Native English Speakers

International students studying in English-speaking countries represent a diverse linguistic background and may exhibit varying degrees of accent, which can influence their self-perception and their perception of others. Accordingly, the paper examines the attitudes of international students toward their own accents and those of native English speakers, with particular emphasis on their adaptation processes in academic and social contexts. In this paper, semi-structured interviews were conducted with undergraduate and postgraduate students from China, with varying levels of English proficiency and length of residence in the UK, which aims to elucidate the nuanced attitudes of international students towards accents and their adaptation strategies. The results show that while many students initially perceived British and American accents as prestigious and attempted to imitate them, as they progressed through the language environment they were more inclined to prioritize effective communication and intelligibility over achieving a perfect native accent. This shift is consistent with existing literature, which emphasizes the importance of prioritizing clarity and mutual understanding. Inclusive language policies that prioritize linguistic diversity and communicative effectiveness, thereby fostering learning environments that are conducive to language acquisition.

A Study on the Influence of Language Environment on English Writing Ability in Universities-Based on the Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Based on the theory of second language acquisition, this study employs a mixed-method approach to investigate the impact of language environment on English writing proficiency in higher education institutions. In the quantitative study, data were collected from 184 students with diverse English language learning backgrounds via the online questionnaire platform "Wenjuanxing" at several universities in China and in-depth interviews were conducted to gain qualitative insights. The findings indicate that the frequency and depth of writing practice, parents' education level, and early exposure to English have a notable impact on English writing ability. Students in the advanced training group demonstrated superior performance due to their increased exposure and practice opportunities, whereas students in the standard study group necessitated more structured instruction and writing practice to enhance their proficiency. The study offers a theoretical foundation and practical guidance for teaching English writing, such as the creation of a rich language environment to facilitate students' English writing abilities.

Instagram vs reality: Exploring local culture through various lenses

Rather than viewing online and face-to-face learning as two dichotomous domains (Kessler, 2018), this study seeks to explore ways that social media can be used to support and facilitate face-to-face exploration and communication in target language environments. It also aims to help English language learners improve their ability to critically evaluate social media by exploring a local community through a critical lens. This study applied the concept of “social media pathways” (authors, 2024) through an experiential learning model to integrate an authentic social networking site, Instagram, into an ESL curriculum for a community engagement project promoting a deeper and multifaceted understanding of the target language community. This study employed qualitative method approach, including seven international students’ reflections, a post-task questionnaire, and focus-group interview data, to investigate how the assumptions made from social media compare with observations made in the field. The findings were then used to establish a “Model for Community Exploration within Virtual and Face-to-face Contexts” that adds to the experiential learning framework the additional stages of experimentation, reflection, and new conceptualization that take place when learners use social media to form assumptions about a community and then use in-person exploration to test those hypotheses.

A Feasibility Study of a Music Enrichment Program on Relative Reinforcing Value of Food and Home Environmental Enrichment among Families of Low Socioeconomic Status.

Emerging evidence suggests that low socioeconomic status (SES) home environments may play a role by promoting excess energy intake through a lack of access to non-food reinforcers. Because of the deleterious effects of SES-related disparities on child health and development, feasible and culturally acceptable interventions are urgently needed. Community-based music enrichment programs may be an ideal intervention strategy. In collaboration with a local non-profit organization and music studio, we conducted a pilot randomized controlled trial to assess the effects of a music enrichment program versus a play date control in a group of 9-24-month-old healthy infants (N = 16). The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Children's Mercy Hospital Kansas City. This study is registered with clinicaltrials.gov (NCT05868811). Overall, we found some intervention effects on the relative reinforcing value of food (RRVfood) and the home environmental enrichment measures (i.e., increased music use at home and the home language environment). Our intervention demonstrated large effects on the increased use of music at home. We did not find significant group differences in the RRVfood and home language environment, but some of the effect sizes were medium-to-large. Results also suggest that our intervention is feasible and acceptable. Parent feedback indicated that the intervention was well-liked and that the steps we took to help reduce barriers worked. Music enrichment programs may be a high-impact, low-cost strategy to address socioeconomic disparities.

Effective Teaching of Chinese Nationalization from the Perspective of Cultural Differences

As the process of Chinese language internationalization accelerates, the importance of cultural differences in Chinese language teaching is becoming more and more prominent. Based on the perspective of cultural differences, this paper analyzes the cases of Chinese language learners from several countries and proposes that in country-specific Chinese language teaching, we should pay attention to the introduction of cultural background and social etiquette, and create appropriate language environment and cultural experience according to students' cultural background. By flexibly utilizing a variety of teaching materials and methods, we emphasize the cultivation of cross-cultural communicative competence and enhance the effectiveness and adaptability of Chinese language teaching.

The gender gap in early language development among children from peri-urban China

In rural China, there exists a gender gap in academic achievement where girls outperform boys, suggesting similar differences in early language development. Moreover, recent research has revealed that children in peri-urban communities have worse language outcomes than children in rural communities. This study examines the impact of gender on early language development in low-SES, peri-urban Chinese communities. Data from 81 children (56.79% boys) aged 18-24 months (Mage = 21.16) living in peri-urban China were collected using two caregiver-reported tests for child language development and ability, and language environment analysis technology for measuring the home language environment. Results show that in peri-urban communities, girls were generally exposed to more adult-child conversations and showed higher counts of vocalizations than did boys; girls scored higher on language development measures than did boys. The implications of these findings on the gender gap and child development are discussed.

The impact of green trade barriers on China’s photovoltaic products exports to ASEAN

In the context of the global push towards a green economy, this research investigates the impact of green trade barriers on the export trade volume of Chinese photovoltaic products to ASEAN from 2010 to 2021. The strong evidence indicates that green trade barriers have a positive effect on improving the export trade volume of Chinese photovoltaic products to ASEAN. This conclusion remains robust through multiple robustness tests, including excluding data from pandemic-affected years and the only developed country Singapore. Moreover, the impact of green trade barriers varies with exchange rate levels and language environments. In countries with higher exchange rates and countries with different official languages, the positive effect of green trade barriers on trade is more significant. In contrast, in countries with the same official language, green trade barriers have a negative effect on improving the trade volume. Additionally, higher levels of renewable energy consumption diminish the beneficial effect of TBT on photovoltaic trade, and CO2 emissions lessen the detrimental effect of TBT on photovoltaic trade. The findings provide valuable insights for policymakers, suggesting that align with international standards, provide differentiated technical assistance and adopt transparent trade rules when formulating green trade barriers to better support the competitiveness and export growth of Chinese photovoltaic products in the international market.

Benidorm’s linguistic landscape: unveiling the multifaceted tapestry of urban expression

ABSTRACT The study of linguistic landscapes offers a captivating and nuanced avenue for understanding the intricate interplay among language, culture, and urban environments. The influence of mass tourism in Benidorm, a vibrant city within the Valencian region, has left an indelible mark on its linguistic landscape, offering a testament to the transformations brought about by the tourism industry. In addition, the coexistence of autochthonous minority languages within this city presents a complex and often precarious situation, where the tensions between cultural preservation and economic prosperity come to the fore. Through our own field methodology, and under the theoretical framework of the Critical Discourse Theory, we will analyse in depth the different aspects of the linguistic landscape of Benidorm, showing the challenges that the city faces to maintain coexistence between all the different languages that populate its streets and that make up a unique linguistic landscape.

Chinese mothers use idioms in shared book reading: A predictor for children's Chinese vocabulary growth?

Idioms play an important role in language; however, little research has examined idioms in children's natural language settings. This study explored idioms usage in maternal talk during mother-child shared book reading and its relation to children's vocabulary development. Thirty-three Chinese children in Norway (aged 3;0-5;5) and their mothers participated. We observed shared reading at the onset of the study and assessed children's receptive and expressive vocabulary in Chinese three times across one year. Results demonstrated that mothers used an average of 1.8 idioms and explained one-third of the idioms. Maternal idiom usage was correlated with their talk amount and lexical diversity. Individual growth modeling revealed that the number of idioms mothers used predicted the growth of children's receptive vocabulary in Chinese. We speculate that idiom usage could be an effective and understudied marker of parental linguistic sophistication. This study underscores the importance of idiom exposure in children's language environment.

Do concept maps prompt long-term memory in CLIL schoolchildren?

To address the learning disadvantages that students might face in a foreign language (L2) environment, this research explores the impact of concept mapping on enhancing long-term memory retention among Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) pupils. The research design is quasi-experimental and involves sixty Spanish primary education students non-randomly assigned from a Spanish-English semi-public bilingual school. The main hypothesis investigated is that concept maps serve as effective teaching instruments for enhancing long-term memory. During training, new information was systematically integrated with students’ prior knowledge to aid long-lasting retention of instructional content. The study examines the use of concept maps in a CLIL classroom as a complement to traditional teaching strategies and instructional design, focusing on improving the recall of previously learned information. Findings show that concept maps are reliable tools for assisting CLIL students whose mother tongue (L1) is not English, significantly reducing forgetfulness because of the precision of the transmitted information. The study shows the potential of concept mapping to improve learning outcomes in L2 settings by providing visual, accurate, and structured learning aids.

Construction of landslide warning by combining rainfall threshold and landslide susceptibility in the gully region of the Loess Plateau: A case of Lanzhou City, China

Regional forecasting of the landslide rainfall threshold is complex, and the empirical prediction of the rainfall threshold relies on historical statistical data. To obtain the intensity I ∼ duration (D) rainfall threshold, Lanzhou City was selected as the research object, and a field investigation, 3S technology, mathematical statistics and a Python language environment were employed to develop a set of automatic rainfall threshold calculation programs. Factor elimination, the information value method, weight of evidence, the frequency ratio, the density method and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve were applied to obtain landslide susceptibility, and the I ∼ D rainfall threshold (temporal probability) and landslide susceptibility (spatial probability) were combined to construct regional landslide rainfall threshold warning levels (red, orange, yellow, and blue). The results showed the rainfall duration of historical landslides ranged from 0.99 to 216 h, thereinto, it was accounted for 92.78 % with that of between 6 and 96 h, and the rainfall intensity was between 0.11 and 23.6 mm/h, and the α and β of the rainfall threshold curve was gradually increased with an increase in the rainfall threshold probability. Additionally, when the rainfall condition probability was the same, landslides occurrence was more frequent in Chenguan District, where there are large areas of bare land, and slope and annual rainfall are less than 10 °and 300 mm, respectively. Fifteen, nine, and six factors were used to obtain landslide susceptibility, and the accuracy of the ROC ranged from 0.78 to 0.80 under different methods and different factor combinations. The spatial distribution of landslide susceptibility was very similar. There were 35, 12, 25, and 108 landslides associated with red, orange, yellow, and blue levels, respectively, under the spatial–temporal probability, but 30, 26, 54, and 70, respectively, under temporal probability. Under the different conditions, there were 89, 69, and 22 landslide points with unchanged, increased, and decreased warning levels, respectively. The ability and accuracy of rainfall threshold warning and prediction were effectively improved by integrating the temporal and spatial probabilities of the rainfall threshold.

Linguistic Basics of the Formation of Students’ Pragmatic Competence

This article discusses the linguistic foundations of the formation of pragmatic competence of students. A review of the history of the formation and study of the term “pragmatic competence” is provided. Similar and related terms with this term are also analyzed, as well as the views and conclusions of domestic and foreign linguists, methodologists, and scholars. To develop a methodology for the formation of pragmatic competence of students, it is crucial to find out its theoretical and methodological foundations; therefore the purpose of this article is to identify the linguistic features of this issue. It is known that the indicator of the personal quality of schoolchildren is equivalent to the indicator of their socialization. The totality of the knowledge, skills, and abilities formed in a child will have a significant influence on their correct and appropriate socialization within their environment in the future. The existence of a close relationship between linguistic, communicative, and pragmatic competencies requires the use of complex methods in solving their common tasks. The study found that the concept of competence has been studied from different perspectives. The main characteristics and indicators of pragmatic competence are established, as well as the concepts of their manifestations in the language environment are presented. The influence of new trends in the field of linguistics on the formation of pragmatic competence is also considered. Several methods that can be used when teaching the Kazakh language are examined. An attempt has been made to find language solutions that contribute to the development of pragmatic competence.

ICT in Teaching Foreign Language in a Ukrainian University

Modern technologies play such an essential role in human life that it is impossible to imagine a full-fledged existence without them. Their application is possible in almost any field of economy, improving human’s life and increasing the efficiency of work. Technologies in education give students and teachers access to a much more considerable amount of information and opportunities compared to learning without technology. Today a student can learn a foreign language directly by hearing it not only in a video or audio recording, but also with the help of various applications, communicating with native speakers, learning their culture. Many scholars have been researching the role of ICT in language learning and have proved its effectiveness. The aim of the article is to determine the role of ICT in foreign language learning at Ukrainian Universities. In addition, we conducted a questionnaire of the English language teachers to determine the frequency of ICT usage at lectures. The results of the researched proved the hypothesis, set in the research, that the younger the teachers, the more often and diversely they use modern technologies in the educational process. Using ICT in teaching foreign languages requires not only the will and time of the teacher but also the skills and abilities to use modern technologies and Internet resources. The introduction of ICT in the educational process will have a positive effect on the results of student learning, among which we will highlight student interest in the educational process, modern and practical materials, immersion of students in the language and cultural environment, the opportunity to better study and master the academic material, communicate with native speakers.

Metacognitive Awareness in Second Language Learning: Displaced Primary School Students’ Experiences of Learning German Upon Transition to the Target Language Environment

Drawing on international pedagogical discourse on the inclusion of ethnically diverse refugee groups in the educational systems of OECD countries as well as our previous research on the Ukrainian refugee perspectives on primary school in Switzerland, the author examines experiences of second language acquisition by displaced Ukrainian children in Swiss primary schools. The two-year research period allowed for the exploration of dynamics of German language acquisition by displaced children in conditions of full immersion in the target language environment and identification of the factors influencing their second language (German) learning and performance. The involvement of a Ukrainian researcher in the research project ensured accessibility of the target group and effective researcher-respondent communication in the course of longitudinal study carried out within the framework of a qualitative methodology with data collection through narrative inquiry and participant observations as research tools. The study identifies the effects of the two groups of factors: learner-internal (motivation, metacognitive skills, prior knowledge, and learning strategies) and learner-external ones (second language learning context, type of second language instruction available upon displacement, etc.). Metacognitive skills proved to be instrumental in second language learning in the context of the learners’ unexpected transition to a new educational setting and full immersion in the target language environment. Effects of metacognitive skills on second language learning of the studied group of displaced children vary considerably depending on the student’s age, prior knowledge and language learning experiences, and second language instruction available upon the displacement. The multidisciplinary character of the second language acquisition research undertaken by the author allows for diverse practical applications of its results in second language pedagogy, psychology of education, as well as in refugee and primary education.