Language Courses Research Articles

Meaning-making of mental health among reception center clients in Finland

Abstract Introduction Asylum seekers and refugees face significant challenges, including high rates of mental health issues, as they navigate unfamiliar societal systems and norms. However, little is known about their subjective experiences of mental health and the mental health support in everyday social encounters. This study aims to explore the meaning-making of mental health and the experiences of receiving mental health support among clients of Finnish reception centers (FRCs). Methods Semi-structured individual in-person interviews were conducted with 11 reception center clients from various locations in Finland, with an interpreter present in four interviews. Interviews lasted approximately 60-90 minutes. Thematic analysis was employed to identify recurring themes and subthemes. Results Preliminary findings indicate a diversity in the meaning-making of mental health among participants. While some discussed mental health in terms of stress, others approached the topic analytically, while some avoided it altogether. Participants highlighted the importance of access to external resources, such as schools, language courses, and employment, for enhancing overall well-being. Trust in FRC staff emerged as a crucial factor in seeking and receiving assistance for mental health concerns. Additionally, participants exhibited resilience, suggesting benefits of empowering them during this challenging period. Conclusions Adopting a holistic approach to mental health care within FRCs is imperative. Understanding how clients construct meaning around mental health is particularly relevant for training FRC staff, who serve as primary points of contact for asylum seekers and refugees in Finland. Moreover, amplifying the voices of reception center clients can contribute to improving services and enhancing the health and well-being of this population in Finland. Key messages • It is necessary to adopt a holistic approach to mental health care within reception centers, one that addresses broader social determinants of mental health. • Trust in the staff of Finnish reception centers is a critical factor in facilitating the seeking and receiving of assistance for mental health concerns among asylum seekers and refugees.

Latent tubercolosis infection in the migrant population: an Italian surveillance experience

Abstract Background The Special Reception Center (“Centro Accoglienza Straordinario” or CAS in Italian) concept was born in Italy in 2014 to receive the large number of migrants arriving in Italy. There are around 3100 centres are in Italy, of which 200+ in Tuscany. Each Center’s objective is to support migrants’ social integration through Italian language and job orientation courses. On arrival at a facility, migrants undergo diagnostic and lab tests to highlight potentially infectious diseases; among these, tuberculosis is one of the most frequently encountered. Therefore, the objective of the study is to estimate the prevalence of Latent Tuberculosis Infections (LTBIs) among migrants hosted in CAS centers. Methods From May-December 2023, Amiata Senese, Val d’Orcia and Valdichiana Senese Public Health Unit staff, according to national and departmental guidelines, implemented a number of health surveillance protocols, with close attention to latent tuberculosis infection. This protocol includes the Mantoux TB skin test at the CAS: in case of positivity, subjects are directed to further exams (chest X-ray, TB-IGRA blood test, infectious disease specialist consultation) in order to implement a therapy. Results From May-December 2023, 259 migrants (241 males and 18 females) received the TB skin tests. Average subject age was 26. Pakistan was the most represented nation of origin with 130 migrants (50%), followed by Bangladesh (9.7%) and Ivory Coast (7.3%). 77 migrants showed a positive TB skin test result (29.7%): of these 56 (i.e. 21.6% of the migrants screened) were also positive to the TB-IGRA blood test and treated for LTBI. Conclusions The high prevalence of LTBIs found in the referenced CAS indicates the need to continue/extend these surveillance protocols. Implementing successfully this procedure requires the involvement of a range of professionals from the socio-health sector within a process necessarily coordinated by the Disease Prevention Department. Key messages • Screening and surveillance of infectious diseases among migrant population represent a major public health issue for European health systems. • Detection and treatment of Latent Tubercolosis Infections require a multiprofessional and integrated approach, coordinated by the Disease Prevention Department.

Fostering Inclusive Learning and 21st‐Century Skills: Creating Translanguaging Spaces in University Content and Language Integrated Learning Courses

ABSTRACTContent and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is an innovative educational approach applicable to diverse settings. CLIL promotes 21st‐century skills, including logical and critical thinking, problem‐solving, creativity, collaboration, and cross‐cultural awareness. In Asia, particularly Japan, CLIL has predominantly focused on English language acquisition, often overshadowing its broader goal of developing other skills. Accordingly, a new language course has been developed to enhance both language proficiency and 21st‐century skills among Japanese and English learners at an international university in Japan. This study presents findings from a larger case study that examines student and teacher experiences within the new CLIL framework, leveraging translanguaging pedagogy. Analyzing student reflections and interviews, this study highlights the role of translanguaging in enhancing 21st‐century skills such as leadership, critical thinking, and collaboration, particularly in group projects. However, deeply ingrained monolingual beliefs pose challenges to students fully embracing translanguaging methods, despite their educational value. This study provides insights for educators and policymakers advocating innovative language programs, particularly in fostering global citizenship and diverse skillsets essential in contemporary contexts. It also highlights the importance of integrating language learning with broader skill development in multicultural educational environments.

The Journey of Learning a Second Language: A Case Study of International Students Residing in the US for the Purpose to Learning English and Undergo Culture Shock

The study at hand analyzes the results from a study using a Qualitative method. The study made use of recorded interviews of 4 second language learners of English from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia who had attended language courses in various parts of the United States. The data displays several themes that are carried throughout the interviews confirming specific expectations prior to their arrival and clash with American culture, while then displaying discrepancies in what was expected and symptoms of the phenomenon known as “Culture shock”. The research conducted aims to generate and analyze the themes the participants expressed in their experiences and interactions with the new culture.

Language Barriers in Studying Medicine in English: Concerns and Attitudes of Clinical Phase Medical Students at the University of Tripoli

Despite being a foreign language, English is the medium of instruction in many Arab medical schools, creating language barriers and difficulties for students. The aim of this study was to assess the concerns and attitudes of students towards English as a medium of instruction (EMI) and to explore the barriers as well as opinions of students. This was a cross-sectional descriptive study that targeted students enrolled at the clinical phase at the faculty of medicine in the University of Tripoli using a self-administered questionnaire during the period from the 10th of March 2024 to the 24th of March, 2024. About 61 (36.1%) medical students were moderately comfortable with the English language, followed by 45 (26.6%) who were comfortable as opposed to 10 (5.9%) who were very uncomfortable. The majority 102 (60.4%) recommended changes to address the language concerns in the curriculum. Among the 66 participants who responded to this section, 33.3% recommended that the university should provide free English language courses and 161 (95.3%) stated they would choose to study medicine in English again. The study revealed that the majority of the participants did not feel that English is a significant barrier in their studies with 62.7% disagreeing with the existence of language barriers.

Promoting Language Learning and Social Inclusion in British and Irish Language Centres

As part of an integrated approach to promoting quality education, diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds as well as inclusive modalities must be considered as key indicators and be incorporated into educational programs (Council of Europe, 2020). This paper investigates how British and Irish University Language Centres present their services, facilities, and language courses to university students and the community in general. The main focus of this study is to understand which factors University Language Centres are emphasizing to foster “inward” and “outward” inclusive education for an effective participation in society. For this purpose, the content and language of a corpus of University Language Centre websites are examined in order to understand how universities are working towards a more multilingual, inclusive, and integrated community. In particular, the data collected refer to specific issues which signal the openness of the centres to welcome diversity and provide learners with the skills and tools to enter a new and more respectful world. As part of the study, we explore the way facilities for students with learning differences and sign language courses are signposted in the context of a broader integration (Heslinga & Nevenglosky, 2012).

The Impact of Sociological Situations, Psychological and Psychological-Situational Characteristics on Curious in Foreign Languages Learning Behaviors of Secondary Students of the Northern British International School

Background and Aim: This research explores the impact of sociological situations, psychological characteristics, and psychological-situational characteristics on the curiosity and behaviors of secondary students learning foreign languages at the Northern British International School. In today's globalized world, proficiency in foreign languages is crucial for academic and professional success. Understanding the factors that influence students' motivation and behaviors in learning languages like German and Chinese can help educators develop effective strategies to enhance their engagement and performance. Materials and Methods: The study involves 42 students from grades 7 to 12 enrolled in foreign language courses at the Northern British International School. A purposive sampling method was used to select the participants. Data were collected using a questionnaire designed based on a comprehensive review of relevant literature. The validity of the instrument was ensured by expert evaluation, and its reliability was tested using Cronbach’s alpha. Descriptive statistics and multiple regression analysis were employed to analyze the relationships between sociological situations, psychological characteristics, and psychological-situational characteristics with students’ foreign language learning behaviors. Results: The analysis revealed that psychological-situational characteristics had the strongest influence on foreign language learning behaviors, followed by sociological situations and psychological characteristics. The regression model indicated that these factors collectively explained 60.3% of the variance in learning behaviors. Specifically, positive learning environments and supportive relationships were found to significantly enhance students' curiosity and engagement in language learning. Conclusion: The findings highlight the importance of creating a supportive and stimulating learning environment that considers both individual and contextual factors. Educators and policymakers should focus on fostering positive sociological and psychological-situational conditions to enhance students' curiosity and motivation to learn foreign languages, ultimately improving their proficiency and academic performance.

Methodological model for teaching residents of foreign language professional communication based on an integrated approach

Importance. The widespread use of foreign language education in non-linguistic universities is due to a number of factors that determine the development of professional activity in various industries. Medicine and healthcare are among the key areas of human activity that require regular updating of knowledge and improvement of professional skills of a specialist in the context of scientific and technological progress. Medical professionals are required to keep abreast of the latest achievements of science and technology, to study new methods of diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases in order to provide patients with better medical care. Using the example of the COVID-19 pandemic, the world community realized that the emergence of such threats requires rapid response and cooperation between various countries and organizations. Only through the experience of interaction between scientists and medical professionals from different countries, it was possible to jointly normalize the epidemiological situation around the world. The World Health Organization has played a key role in coordinating international efforts to combat coronavirus infection by providing all the necessary information in foreign languages, mainly English and French. In view of this, there is a social demand in the labor market for medical workers who speak English perfectly, and in higher educational institutions there is a demand for language courses from students of residency. The main purpose of the study is to develop a methodological model for teaching residents of foreign language professional communication based on an integrated approach.Research Methods. To achieve the main goal, theoretical and empirical research methods are applied, which make it possible to study and analyze existing theories and concepts on the topic of developing a methodological model for teaching residents of foreign language professional co mmunication based on an integrated approach. Based on the analysis of the academic literature on the research topic, the regularities of the construction of the methodological model, its functions and component composition are revealed. Modeling of the educational process makes it possible to create an effective methodological model for teaching residents of foreign language professional communication based on an integrated approach.Results and Discussion. The conducted research makes it possible to identify the didactic functions of the methodological model: 1) orienting; 2) regulatory; 3) formative; 4) controlling. Based on the identified didactic functions, a methodological model for teaching residents of foreign la nguage professional communication based on an integrated approach is developed, which is structurally presented in the form of five consecutive blocks: 1) prerequisites; 2) goal setting block; 3) content block; 4) operational and activity block; 5) evaluation and performance block.Conclusion. The developed methodological model for teaching residents of foreign language professional communication based on an integrated approach allows creating a simulation of the educational process in order to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the proposed teaching met hodology. The obtained research results are supposed to be used in the methods of foreign language teaching in medical universities in the training of residents.

Modern technologies and subject content of a foreign language course for future media specialists

Importance. The subject-language integrated approach is relatively new in the field of foreign language teaching methods. It pursues a dual goal related to the formation of professional communication skills in a foreign language (the formation of communicative and professional competencies). The application of the subject-language integrated approach faces several challenges related to both teachers and students. Firstly, the level of training of students should correspond to the B1B2 level. Secondly, the level of teacher training should combine the foreign language teaching with the specialized content teaching. The potential of the subject-language integrated approach in teaching foreign languages has already been applied and evaluated in the future doctors training, lawyers, and agricultural specialists.Research Methods. The subject-language integrated approach can be incorporated into the language training for future professionals in the media sphere (areas of training “Journalism”, “Advertising and Public Relations”, “Media Communications”). The professional component of the course is related not only to the thematic content of the classes, but also to the possibility of using modern technologies (for example, the artificial intelligence capabilities, virtual and augmented reality technologies) in the media products development within the framework of the training course with their subsequent discussion in the language being studied.Research Results. The subject-language integrated approach has obvious potential in the language training of future media specialists (areas of study “Journalism”, “Advertising and Public Relations”, “Media Communications”). The specialized subject content of the course, as well as the technologies and tools used in the practice of media specialists in the media products and advertising products development, along with language competencies, allow the formation of professional competencies.Conclusions. The aim of the research is to further investigate the potential of an integrated approach to the training of future media professionals. Of particular interest to the study is the identification of specific speech skills required for effective foreign language communication in the speech interaction professional sphere.

INTERCULTURALITY AND LANGUAGE TEACHING: EXPERIENCES IN A KOREAN COURSE

This work aims to highlight the importance of the intercultural perspective in teaching foreign languages, based on a case study in a Korean language course based on the author's experience. The definitions of identity, difference, culture, and language, as well as their interrelationships, and how intercultural perspectives can be applied in the classroom are analyzed. The study investigates the presence of interculturality in the educational environment and how theories are practiced. It is concluded that interculturality plays an essential role in teaching foreign languages, allowing students to better understand the culture of the target language, without resorting to stereotypes, and at the same time respect their own culture as the basis of identity. The theoretical framework includes authors such as Byram, Hall, and Hanna, who discuss identity, culture, and interculturality in the context of language teaching.

Emerging New Media Syntax, Violation of English Syntactic Rules, and Meaning Misrepresentations

A new variety of English syntax emerged with the new media. This study examines new media syntax to show instances of mindless violation of grammatical rules and the misrepresentation of meanings among student users of the new media. The study relies on selected social media posts. Descriptive survey, textual and content analyses, and interpretive techniques are employed. The analysis demonstrates that new media syntax, a corrupted or bastardized form of the English syntax, is characterized by syntactic deviations, grammatical violations, misrepresentation of meanings, and informal features, which affect the performance of students in English Language courses or subjects because most of them transfer the syntactic features of new media syntax to their formal compositions. The study concludes that the strained use of new media exerts adverse effects on English syntax and students’ writing and performance because they lose marks to the transferred features of new media syntax to the formal English syntax, which causes solecism, violation of grammatical rules and misrepresentation of meanings. Teachers are charged to consistently teach students how to use new media language for its associated informal contexts and purposes alone rather than mixing it with the formal variety in formal compositions.

Harmonizing Languages: The Impact of Multilingual Classroom Dynamics on Teaching Indonesian in Taiwan

This case study investigates the intricate interplay of multilingualism, specifically in Chinese and English, and its consequential impact on the language of instruction in the context of teaching Indonesian as a foreign language in Taiwan. This research delves into the nuances of language pedagogy within a multicultural and multilingual educational setting. This study employs case study methodology, gathering data through classroom observations and openended student questionnaires. Additionally, students' progress, as evidenced by assignments and feedback, serves as a quantitative indicator to measure the influence of multilingualism on their language learning journey. Key objectives include examining student preferences and perceptions on the use of Chinese and English in Indonesian language course instruction. The research explores instances of code-switching and code-mixing, shedding light on the dynamic language choices of instructors and learners. Through an analysis of student progress, the study aims to discern tangible outcomes associated with the multilingual approach. The results show that students found the classroom dynamics positive and motivating, enhancing their learning experience. Local students benefited from using Chinese, while international students appreciated the multilingual approach, though some noted occasional delays in translation. Overall, the study provides insights into the benefits and challenges of multilingualism in Indonesian language instruction in Taiwan, contributing to discussions on effective practices in multilingual education.

Mediating Effects of Students’ Study Time on ICT Resource Availability, Teacher Competence and Academic Performance in Programming Languages

This study investigated the mediating role of students' study time in the relationships between the availability of ICT (information and communication technology) resources, teacher competence, and academic performance in programming language courses. The researchers used a sample of 287 undergraduate students and employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to analyze the hypothesized mediating effects. The findings showed that both ICT resource availability and teacher competence had positive and significant indirect effects on academic performance, which were partially mediated by the amount of time students spent studying. Specifically, the indirect effect of ICT resource availability on academic performance through study time was 0.159 (p < 0.001), and the indirect effect of teacher competence on academic performance through study time was 0.195 (p < 0.001). These results suggest that while ICT resources and teacher competence directly contribute to improved academic performance in programming languages, they also indirectly influence performance by promoting increased study time among students. The mediating role of study time highlights the importance of creating an environment that supports and encourages students to engage in self-directed learning activities, in addition to providing adequate technological resources and competent teaching. The findings have important implications for educational practitioners and policymakers, as they emphasize the need to adopt a holistic approach to enhancing student learning outcomes in programming courses by understanding the complex interplay between various factors and their indirect effects.

U.S. students learning Czech in study abroad: motivational dynamics

Abstract While study-abroad students generally prefer destinations where the local language relates to their personal, academic, or professional pursuits, the Czech Republic ranks as the 25th most popular destination for U.S. study abroad, signalling an interest in exploring beyond traditional language choices. This study addresses the gap in the literature on learning a less commonly taught language in the study abroad setting, which is unrelated to the student’s major fields of study (Czech). Over thirteen weeks, data were gathered through a qualitative methodology involving initial questionnaires, learner diaries, and semi-structured interviews with a sample of five students. Drawing on the L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), the research underscores the impact of the L2 learning experience and the construct of the ideal L2 self on motivation. Findings revealed a general increase in motivation for learning Czech throughout the semester, accompanied by a decline in the ideal Czech self by the end and an indicative enhancement in the ideal multilingual self-concept. This study additionally emphasizes the vital role of mandatory language courses in augmenting motivation, particularly when aligned with learners’ objectives. These insights broaden the understanding of motivational dynamics in acquiring languages other than English (LOTEs), highlighting the necessity for continued exploration of the multilingual motivational self-system within study-abroad contexts.

Teachers as silencers: a Q methodology study into teachers’ characteristics contributing to unwillingness to communicate among foreign language learners

ABSTRACT Purpose This Q methodology study explored foreign language learners’ divergent viewpoints on teachers’ characteristics that contribute to unwillingness to communicate (unWTC). Design/methodology/approach Q sorting was administered in-person with 40 Chinese undergraduate students enrolled in several Thai as a Foreign Language courses at a university in Thailand. The students sorted 30 statements, each reflecting distinct teacher characteristics that potentially silence them in the classroom, onto a forced-distribution grid. All Q sorts were analyzed using inverted factor analysis, followed by semi-structured interviews with six of the participants. Findings The findings revealed three profiles of characteristics that contribute to L2 unWTC, namely, the impatient teacher, the uninspiring teacher, and the intimidating teacher. These profiles were found to hinder different groups from engaging in L2 communication. The findings are discussed in relation to relevant educational theories, and implications are presented. Originality/value This study highlights the importance of understanding and addressing specific teacher behaviors that influence learners’ L2 WTC. By identifying and mitigating these behaviors, educational institutions can create more supportive and encouraging learning environments that promote greater engagement and success in language learning.

ИННОВАЦИОННАЯ ПАРАДИГМА В КОНТЕКСТЕ ВЫСШЕГО ТЕХНИЧЕСКОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ

The purpose of the article is to describe the experience of using the technology of developing critical thinking in the practical course of the Russian language in the technical university. The article considers efficient ways of applying elements of technology of critical thinking development in practical classes in the Russian language. The classification technology of critical thinking development techniques carried out by the authors, which is based on three phases of learning, gradually replacing each other ("challenge — comprehension — reflection"), is successfully used in university practice. In technology of critical thinking development, the ability to work with questions occupy an important place. Technology of critical thinking development is focused on the questions which develops the mental activity of students. During reflection, students analyze the received information, exchange opinions, justify their point of view. At this stage, it is advisable to turn the acquired information into written form, since in the process of verbalization, new information is comprehended. In this aspect, it is important to instill in students the ability to summarize information. The use of technology of critical thinking development techniques in practical classes of the Russian language makes it possible to make students' educational activities more creative and productive. The organization of such classes, characterized by a certain logic of construction and sequence of combinations of specific tasks, develops the communicative competence of learners, teaches them to read thoughtfully and immerse themselves in information, organize and analyze information, define and solve problems, deal with a notion, conduct reasoned discussion, interpret, creatively process new information, reflect. The use of technology of critical thinking development techniques in Russian language classes contributes to the formation of students' skills to determine the value of an idea based on a critical and objective consideration of arguments.

Hungarian EFL Students' Perspectives on Global Competence Development in a Thematic Language Course

In today’s increasingly complex world, education must equip students to become engaged, globally competent citizens, who can solve both local and global issues and are ready to face the challenges of the 21st century. The goal of global competence is to address these demands by strengthening the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes: a globally competent student can examine issues of global significance, understand other people’s perspectives, engage in appropriate and effective interactions with people from different cultural backgrounds, and act for collective well-being and sustainable development. In this framework, this case study aims to explore how a thematic language development seminar focussing on global content can contribute to developing second-year EFL students’ global competence and its perceived effectiveness. One group of students (N=18) from a prestigious Hungarian university was involved in the study, instructed by the first author. Data was collected over the course of the Spring 2023 semester from multiple data sources: student reflections after each thematic lesson, a beginning-of-the-term feedback sheet, an end-of-the-term feedback sheet, weekly student reflections, observation notes (by the second author) and reflective journals (by the first author). The findings emerging from this qualitative inquiry suggest that the students were satisfied with the course overall and could effectively gauge which global and language skills they developed during the course. These findings imply that designing courses with dual aims is both feasible and worthwhile, and with the help of regular reflection exercises, the students can be made aware of the development of their skills, leading to increased global awareness and satisfaction with the course.

Dimension of Attitudes in Flipped Learning: Enjoyment, Engagement, Motivation, Behavioral Intention, and Perception

This research investigates the influence of video-based flipped learning on the attitudes of students in non-English language programs, focusing on enjoyment, engagement, motivation, behavioral intentions, and perception. The study employed a descriptive research design, collecting data through questionnaires administered to 30 students enrolled in non-English language courses. The findings reveal a significantly positive attitude towards flipped learning, with high scores in enjoyment and engagement indicating a preference for the interactive and dynamic nature of video-based learning environments. The study confirms that motivation and behavioral intentions are positively affected by the flipped model, enhancing students' proactive learning behaviors and overall engagement with the course material. Moreover, the positive perception of video-based learning among students suggests that this method supports a deeper understanding and retention of language skills. This research contributes to the educational discourse by demonstrating that flipped learning models can significantly improve learning experiences and outcomes in non-English language settings. Future studies are encouraged to explore the long-term impacts of flipped learning on language proficiency and retention, aiming to validate and expand upon the current findings.

Brain Dominance, Learning Styles and Reading Comprehension of Saudi EFL Learners: A Survey Study

Development of global skills to pave the way in the Sustainable Development Goals (SGs) requires institutions around the world to put quality education as one of the pillars for a sustainable economy. The present study employed a descriptive survey research design to capture the brain dominance, learning styles, and reading comprehension of Saudi EFL learners. The study involved a randomly sampled 154 students enrolled in language and reading courses at Qassim University, Saudi Arabia. The results of the study showed that Saudi EFL learners are left-brain dominant in that they consider themselves analytical, logical, methodological, and detail-oriented. Similarly, the distribution of respondents' learning styles, whether visual, auditory, or kinesthetic, is almost equal, indicating that the Saudi EFL learners have distinct learning preferences and processes. Finally, the results revealed that a significant number of students excel in reading, while a smaller number still struggle with it. Hence, Qassim University must implement student-centered language teaching interventions and strategies to realize the vision of the Saudi future. The diversity of Saudi EFL learners necessitates different instructional modalities and processes, and their level of reading performance demands effective interventions to address their language capabilities.

Prolegomeni allo studio dei parlanti ereditari di sardo

When a minority language holds a subordinate position and is neglected or abandoned in family communication, some speakers acquire it imperfectly, resulting in limited proficiency; these individuals are known as heritage speakers. However, some heritage speakers later develop an attachment to their ancestral language and choose to study it in formal or informal educational settings, becoming heritage learners. This study focuses on heritage learners of Sardinian, a Romance language spoken in Sardinia. Today, most Sardinian residents under fifty primarily speak Italian, but there is a growing interest in Sardinian language courses aimed at reconnecting community members with their linguistic heritage. This research examines the grammatical and lexical competence of a sample of these heritage learners, particularly focusing on areas identified in the literature as vulnerable to erosion and interference from Italian. Specifically, it will demonstrate that in instances of grammatical or lexical divergence between Sardinian and Italian, heritage learners tend to accept both idiomatic Sardinian forms and Italian-influenced forms, indicating significant interference in their proficiency of the minority language. This study aims to help language teachers develop targeted interventions to enhance the competence of heritage learners, differentiating from curricula designed for second language learners of Sardinian when necessary.