Language Context Research Articles

Assessing Computational Literacy in First Language (L1) Teaching

This article addresses the multifaceted challenges of assessing computational literacy (CL) within the context of first language (L1) teaching. The article commences by examining the theoretical foundations and the need for an expanded understanding of CL, moving beyond the popular notion of computational thinking (CT). We then present an example from a 5th-grade classroom in a Danish middle school to illustrate how pupils integrate computational skills into their writing practices through a design-based intervention. Subsequent to this example, we propose a cross-disciplinary framework designed to assess CL in L1 settings, focusing on four principles that bridge traditional language arts with computational approaches. Finally, we reflect on how the application of these principles can help formulate new learning goals that better align with the emerging demands of 21st-century education. Throughout the article, we argue that a CL approach provides a more socially rooted and context-sensitive method for integrating computational methods into non-computer science subjects, offering theoretical clarity and practical benefits for both educators and researchers alike. The article commences with a discussion of the CL approach related to assessment.

A longitudinal study of math skills in heritage bilingual children: profiles of strengths and weaknesses.

Many children are exposed to a heritage language in the home context, and they learn mathematics in the school context in the societal language (Italian in the present study). More evidence is needed on how Heritage Bilinguals (HBs) perform in different subtypes of numeracy and mathematics skills in a longitudinal perspective. This longitudinal study aimed to analyze the mathematical skills of heritage bilingual children. 220 HBs (50.5% female, from different linguistic/ethnic groups, including Indo-Iranian, Arabic, Chinese, Romanian, Albanian and Slavic languages) and 440 monolinguals (46.8% female, mostly Italian) were followed from second to third grade (aged between 7 and 9 years). The following tasks were administered: dictation, symbolic comparison, number line, mental calculation, multiplication tables, approximate calculation, problem-solving and written calculations. The results showed an advantage for HBs in approximate calculation, but they underperformed in problem-solving, multiplication tables, and mental calculations. A profile analysis highlighted the percentages of children at risk for math impairment. The study provides a longitudinal profile of strengths and weaknesses in the mathematics profile of children with HBs, with developmental trajectories that vary according to verbal load. The discussion focuses on the role of verbal load in math tasks in the assessment of HBs, and implications for clinical and educational contexts.

LLaMA 3 vs. State-of-the-Art Large Language Models: Performance in Detecting Nuanced Fake News

This study investigates the effectiveness of a proposed version of Meta’s LLaMA 3 model in detecting fake claims across bilingual (English and Romanian) datasets, focusing on a multi-class approach beyond traditional binary classifications in order to better mimic real-world scenarios. The research employs a proposed version of the LLaMA 3 model, optimized for identifying nuanced categories such as “Mostly True” and “Mostly False”, and compares its performance against leading large language models (LLMs) including Open AI’s ChatGPT versions, Google’s Gemini, and similar LLaMA models. The analysis reveals that the proposed LLaMA 3 model consistently outperforms its base version and older LLaMA models, particularly in the Romanian dataset, achieving the highest accuracy of 39% and demonstrating superior capabilities in identifying nuanced claims, over all the compared large language models. However, the model’s performance across both languages highlights some challenges, with generally low accuracy and difficulties in handling ambiguous categories by all the LLMs. The study also underscores the impact of language and cultural context on model reliability, noting that even state-of-the-art models like ChatGPT 4.o and Gemini exhibit inconsistencies when applied to Romanian text and more than a binary true/false approach.

Evaluating the Impact of Senior Five Learners’ English Vocabulary Knowledge on their English-Speaking Skills in Three Selected Schools in Gakenke District, Rwanda

Empirical studies have evidenced the correlation between vocabulary knowledge and English-speaking skills in various English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts but research is scarce in rural Rwandan schools. The present study evaluated the impact of senior five (S5) learners’ vocabulary knowledge on developing their English-speaking skills in three selected schools in the Gakenke District in Rwanda. The current study was guided by Harmer’s and Bygate’s vocabulary knowledge hypothesis and communicative competence theories for developing speaking proficiency. A quantitative descriptive research design was employed and cluster sampling was used to select 90 S5 learners from 116 who made the target population. A structured questionnaire was administered to assess the current status of vocabulary knowledge and English-speaking skills and the impact of vocabulary knowledge on English-speaking skills. Descriptive statistics was used for data analysis using MS Excel. Key findings revealed that 73.3% of learners regularly look up new vocabulary, and 100% reported having insufficient vocabulary. Additionally, 84.44% indicated that their speaking proficiency was low to moderate. Despite this low vocabulary knowledge, 95.56% of learners acknowledged that vocabulary enhances speaking skills. However, only 15.5% reported using new vocabulary frequently. Many learners (81.11%) felt that vocabulary development improved their self-expression, and 54.44% noted increased confidence in speaking English. Motivation was the highest-ranked factor influencing speaking skill development (M=4.40, SD=0.85), while assessment ranked lowest (M=2.96, SD=0.97). The study concluded that S5 learners in the selected schools have insufficient vocabulary knowledge to achieve the required level of speaking proficiency. The study recommended reinforcing vocabulary acquisition instructions and opportunities for learners to practice communicative English and assigns that future work should emphasize formal tests that examine English proficiency in correlational and experimental studies.

Bilingual Language Experience May Alter Perception of the Tritone Paradox Evidence from Spanish/English Bilingual and English Monolingual Listeners in Texas

ABSTRACT In the tritone paradox, tones separated by a half octave are heard by some as descending and by others as ascending. The phenomenon has been variously interpreted in a psychoacoustic manner or in terms of pitch class templates shaped by early language experience. If early language experience is a critical factor affecting tritone perception, would the paradox be perceived differently depending on whether the language experience was monolingual or bilingual? Monolingual (n=42) and bilingual (n=65) participants were recruited from the same geographic location. Bilinguals were subdivided by onset of bilingualism and – further, for late bilinguals - by first acquired language (Spanish or English). Participants judged whether they heard pairs of synthesized tritones as ascending or descending in pitch. Analysis of peak pitch distribution showed a significant difference between monolinguals and late bilinguals. No differences were noted between English-Spanish and Spanish-English late bilinguals, nor between early and late bilinguals. Additionally, among Spanish-English late bilinguals, significant differences were found in tritone perception between low and high envelope presentation. Our findings suggest that acquisition of two languages, under some conditions, may alter perception of musical pitch relative to acquisition of a single language. The finding of language experience-based differences in tritone perception is more compatible with an account based on pitch class templates shaped by language experience than by existing psychoacoustic accounts. It is not possible to completely rule out a psychoacoustic account, if we assume that individuals with different linguistic backgrounds may differ in the position of the preference region in the frequency axis such models rely on. Also other variables at play in this study cannot be ruled out with certainty. Our findings are consistent with other research suggesting that bilingual language experience is associated with greater perceptual flexibility, in both language and non-language contexts.

Pathways to motivation and learning in English language education: a case of two youths engaging in multiliteracies

Purpose This study investigates the effect of digital multimodal composing (DMC) on student motivation and literacy in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts. It explores how students engaged in creating digital animations to respond to literary texts and the implications for integrating DMC into traditional literacy practices. Grounded in social semiotic theory and Self-Determination Theory, this study aims to understand how digital composing influences student engagement, motivation and literacy development. Design/methodology/approach Qualitative data were gathered over a six-month period using a combination of student surveys, semi-structured interviews, reflection logs and student-produced scripts/animations. This study focused on two university students who engaged in multimodal projects as part of their extracurricular EFL activities, examining their processes and reflections. Findings Students demonstrated strong intrinsic motivation during DMC processes, largely due to the social affordances provided by digital multimodal composing. By combining traditional literacy skills with digital practices, students experienced enhanced creative expression, enhanced meaning-making and a deeper understanding of literary texts through the production and sharing of animated videos. This process promoted both emotional and cognitive engagement, emphasizing the importance of teacher guidance and digital tools in creating a more dynamic and supportive learning environment. Practical implications This study outlines a practical approach to DMC through a structured process: selecting and reading a book, proposing a change as if requesting it from the author, creating and sharing a video on YouTube to explain the change and reflecting on the experience. This approach can guide educators in designing activities that deepen student engagement, enhance critical thinking and integrate digital tools with traditional learning methods. Originality/value This study contributes to the understanding of how digital technologies can transform traditional literacy practices, offering insights into the benefits of multimodal composition for language learning and motivation in EFL contexts. It provides practical examples of how students and teachers can leverage digital tools to enhance literacy education and prepare students for 21st-century challenges.

Neural representations of phonological information in bilingual language production.

Previous research has explored the neural mechanisms of bilinguals' language production, but most studies focused on neural mechanisms of cognitive control during language production. Therefore, it is unclear which brain regions represent lexical information (especially phonological information) during production and how they are affected by language context. To address those questions, we used representational similarity analysis to explore neural representations of phonological information in native (L1) and second languages (L2) in the single- and mixed-language contexts, respectively. Results showed that Chinese-English bilinguals behaviorally performed worse and exhibited more activations in brain regions associated with language processing and cognitive control in the mixed-language context relative to the single-language context. Further representational similarity analysis revealed that phonological representations of L1 were detected in the left pars opercularis, middle frontal gyrus, and anterior supramarginal gyrus, while phonological representations of L2 were detected in the bilateral occipitotemporal cortex regardless of the target language. More interestingly, robust phonological representations of L1 were observed in brain areas related to phonological processing during L2 production regardless of language context. These results provide direct neuroimaging evidence for the nonselective processing hypothesis and highlight the superiority of phonological representations in the dominant language during bilingual language production.

Beyond roots and wings: co-constructing a framework for heritage language children's liminal and limbotic identities

ABSTRACT As identity research in a globalised world progresses, so does our understanding of the need for nuanced research methodologies, to capture the complexities of multilingual identities. In this paper, we systematically explore the entanglements surrounding dual or mixed identity, supported by the analysis of 132 identity narratives from multilingual young people (11–18 years old) with Chinese heritage. Applying a poststructural lens and drawing on Dörnyei’s motivational self system, Norton’s investment theory, and Little’s conceptualisation of emotional and pragmatic reasons for heritage language maintenance, we strengthen the field of multilingual identity research by introducing a framework that corresponds to the complexities of participants’ lived experiences as heritage language speakers and learners, while honouring their preferences for self-expression. Crucially, the framework has been co-produced with a group of young co-researchers (aged 11–16 years old), ensuring that young people’s views and experiences are respected in the way we research and interpret identities in the heritage language context. In introducing the framework, we provide data examples in the form of relevant quotes for each aspect introduced, highlighting links to existing identity theories and situating the framework as a vital tool within heritage language and multilingual identity research.

Makna Ider Bumi pada Bulan Sura di Kelurahan Penataban Kecamatan Giri Banyuwangi

Penataban Village is one of the neighborhoods located in the center of Banyuwangi. Although situated in the center of Banyuwangi, Penataban Village continues to uphold traditional customs and cultural practices, such as the Ider Bumi ceremony. According to Kridalaksana (2023:13), meaning refers to the speaker's intention, the influence of language units in understanding human perception or behavior, relationships in terms of similarities or differences between language and non-language contexts, or between speech and all that it denotes, or the way language symbols are used. This study employs a qualitative research method. The data source for this research is the Ider Bumi event held during the Suro month in Penataban Village, Banyuwangi. The data focuses on the aspects of the meaning of Ider Bumi during the Suro month in Penataban Village, Banyuwangi. Data collection methods include (1) documentation, (2) note-taking, and (3) interviews. The Ider Bumi ceremony takes place both at night and in the morning. The meaning of the Ider Bumi ceremony in Penataban Village differs from that in other villages. The Ider Bumi event in Penataban is specifically held on the first day of Sura. In addition to the nighttime village procession, there is a communal meal held in the morning. This tradition is an essential part of the cultural and social identity of Penataban Village. The harmonious relationship between humans and nature is demonstrated through the communal meal, where residents come together to share food made from local produce. Furthermore, the harmonious relationship between humans and spirituality is reflected in the procession, which includes recitations of istighfar (a form of seeking forgiveness), the call to prayer, and prayers at every corner of the village

RingGesture: A Ring-Based Mid-Air Gesture Typing System Powered by a Deep-Learning Word Prediction Framework.

Text entry is a critical capability for any modern computing experience, with lightweight augmented reality (AR) glasses being no exception. Designed for all-day wearability, a limitation of lightweight AR glass is the restriction to the inclusion of multiple cameras for extensive field of view in hand tracking. This constraint underscores the need for an additional input device. We propose a system to address this gap: a ring-based mid-air gesture typing technique, RingGesture, utilizing electrodes to mark the start and end of gesture trajectories and inertial measurement units (IMU) sensors for hand tracking. This method offers an intuitive experience similar to raycast-based mid-air gesture typing found in VR headsets, allowing for a seamless translation of hand movements into cursor navigation. To enhance both accuracy and input speed, we propose a novel deep-learning word prediction framework, Score Fusion, comprised of three key components: a) a word-gesture decoding model, b) a spatial spelling correction model, and c) a lightweight contextual language model. In contrast, this framework fuses the scores from the three models to predict the most likely words with higher precision. We conduct comparative and longitudinal studies to demonstrate two key findings: firstly, the overall effectiveness of RingGesture, which achieves an average text entry speed of 27.3 words per minute (WPM) and a peak performance of 47.9 WPM. Secondly, we highlight the superior performance of the Score Fusion framework, which offers a 28.2% improvement in uncorrected Character Error Rate over a conventional word prediction framework, Naive Correction, leading to a 55.2% improvement in text entry speed for RingGesture. Additionally, RingGesture received a System Usability Score of 83 signifying its excellent usability.

The Argumentative Structural Shifts in English-Arabic Translation of BBC News Reports: A Sociolinguistic And Cultural Perspective

The socio-cultural and ideological features of translation have become so prominent that many studies have investigated the translation shifts resulting from the linguistic transference from the source language (SL) into the target language (TL). It is the primary aim of the present article to demonstrate the nature of the structural (morpho-syntactic) shifts in the Arabic written translation of English political British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) news, which may be attributable to differences in cultural, ideological and sociolinguistic backgrounds of the target language speakers (Arabic). The heterogeneity of the socio-cultural context in which the English and Arabic political discourses are communicated is reflected in the syntactic shifts in the sentential and phrasal structure in the translation process of BBC News. The target texts (TT) exhibit a substantial tendency to conform to the socio-cultural and ideological context of the target language (TL) at the expense of the morphosyntactic structure of the ST. The research methodology involves analyzing some English BBC news extracts (ST) and their Arabic translation to investigate the structural shifts in translation. The data analysis, conducted with meticulous attention to detail, shows that the Arabic translation alters the (ST) linguistic structures and shifts the socio-cultural and ideological conceptions of the target text (TT) readers. A key aspect of the methodology is the adoption of a comparative approach, which allows for a thorough examination of the structural differences and similarities and their corresponding content. The article also takes cognizance of Hatim's (1997) ideas on translation across different cultures and those of Fishman (1972) on the sociolinguistic reflections of language. The study concludes that the target readers' cultural background, ideological make-up and sociolinguistic perception can be altered due to the structural shifts in translating political news into Arabic. It shows that the structural shifts lead to specific deviations in the argumentative structure of the source text (ST) through argumentation or counter-argumentation.

Saudi EFL Students’ Attitudes Toward the Target Culture and Its Relationship with Their Linguistic Backgrounds

Culture and language have long been focal points of investigation, and both have been intensively discussed in the academic literature, but little attention has been paid to the influence of EFL students’ linguistic backgrounds on their attitudes toward the target culture, especially in the Saudi context. This mixed-method study aimed to explore the impact of learners’ linguistic backgrounds (mainly their language academic achievement levels and contexts of language learning) on their attitudes toward the target culture. The data was collected using an online questionnaire. A total of 84 students from the Faculty of Language and Translation at King Khaled University participated in this study. A Pearson correlation coefficient test and thematic analysis were used to interpret the data. The results showed a significant relationship between the participants’ linguistic backgrounds and their attitudes. The results also indicated that the participants had an overall positive attitude toward the integration of the target culture into language learning. In light of the findings, EFL students’ linguistic background should be taken into consideration before embedding the target culture into language learning.

A Review of Approaches to Standardizing Medical Descriptions for Clinical Entity Recognition: Implications for Artificial Intelligence Implementation

This article reviews the current state of standardization in specific areas of the medical sector in Poland, focusing on terminology and the unique context of the Polish language. The primary objective was to analyze the existing resources and examine possibilities, challenges, and opportunities associated with integrating Artificial Intelligence, particularly natural language processing methods, into the healthcare system. The additional goal of this review was to place Poland in the international context by comparing the current state of the Polish standardization of healthcare with those of selected countries with more and less developed systems. The exploration highlights the main challenges that impact integration, including the specificity of the language and challenges in transferring knowledge from other languages, lack of communication between parties, and lack of stakeholder involvement in the standardization processes. This review also presents potential solutions to the mentioned challenges and provides insights into future directions, possibilities, proposals, and recommendations for all stakeholders. The practical application of this research extends beyond Poland. Many countries with underrepresented languages face similar challenges in clinical data processing, and the advances in CER for Polish could serve as a model for implementing AI-driven solutions in these regions. By refining CER models and adapting them to diverse linguistic and healthcare contexts, this research can foster improvements in patient care, medical research, and healthcare administration on a global scale.

A Study of Factors That Affect Chinese Tertiary EFL Learners’ Willingness to Communicate in Class

Classroom interaction characterizes communicative language teaching. Effective classroom interaction promotes second language acquisition (SLA) and serves as an important means of using the language especially for students in a foreign language context. Willingness to communicate (WTC) has received constant attention since its application to the SLA field in the 1990s. Students’ WTC ensures the quantity and quality of classroom interaction. By analyzing the data from an end-of-year questionnaire in an ordinary Chinese college English class, the present study aims to examine Chinese non-English major students’ general attitudes towards classroom communication activities and two major categories of factors, namely Teacher Factors and Task Factors, that influence students’ WTC in English classes from students’ perspective. The results show that the factors affecting WTC in college English classrooms are multidimensional, with Teacher’ s Emotions (being patient, encouraging, guiding, positive, happy, lively, passionate, trust), Teacher’ s Professional qualities (content selection, class organization, pronunciation, wait-time) and Task Content (usefulness, degree of difficulty, interest) having relatively greater effects. At the end of the paper, direction for future research is given. Second/foreign language teachers are advised to conduct further classroom research and actively regulate these factors for a more interactive English class and thus improve students’ class participation and learning efficiency.

The Effect of Students' Engagement on Their Learning Achievement in EFL Online Courses

Engagement is an essential aspect of students' success in learning. Even though students' engagement with learning has been widely investigated, the level of learners' online engagement and the relationship between learners' online engagement and their achievement, especially in the English as a foreign language (EFL) context, using a learning management system (i.e. Blackboard), remains unexplored. To fill that gap, this study examines the effects of learner engagement, using its three dimensions (behavioural, emotional, and cognitive), on students' achievement in learning EFL in online courses. In total, 189 college students participated in the study. Data was analysed using the second-generation analysis technique structural equation modelling (SEM) to examine the relationships among constructs and test the hypothesis. Results revealed that students' engagement significantly affected their achievement in learning EFL in an online environment.

Language Dominance and Cultural Identity Predict Variation in Self-Reported Personality in English and Spanish Among Hispanic/Latino Bilingual Adults

Language is a fundamental aspect of human culture that influences cognitive and perceptual processes. Prior evidence demonstrates personality self-report can vary across multilingual persons’ language contexts. We assessed how cultural identification, language dominance, or both dynamically influence bilingual respondents’ self-conception, via self-reported personality, across English and Spanish contexts. During separate English and Spanish conditions, 133 Hispanic/Latino bilingual participants (70 female) completed the Big Five Inventory of personality. We used language use and acculturation surveys completed in both languages to calculate participants’ relative language dominance and identification with U.S.-American and Hispanic culture. Participants reported higher levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism in English relative to Spanish. Language dominance predicted cross-language differences in personality report, with higher extraversion reported in participants’ dominant language. Within each language, greater endorsement of U.S.-American identity was associated with higher extraversion and conscientiousness and lower reported neuroticism. Agreeableness report in both languages was positively predicted by Hispanic identification. Our results clarify existing literature related to language and cultural effects on personality report among U.S. Hispanics/Latinos. These findings could inform assessments of self-relevant cognitions across languages among bilingual populations and hold relevance for health outcomes affected by cultural processes.

Language learner well-being in heritage language learning: conceptualisation, measurement, and a pathway to flourishing

ABSTRACT This paper reports on the process of developing an original framework for conceptualising and measuring language learner well-being within the context of heritage language (HL) learning. Drawing on a quantitative validation study with 545 young Chinese heritage language (CHL) learners, aged 7–18, in the UK, this paper presents an empirically validated model alongside a self-report instrument designed to measure learner well-being. A comprehensive development and validation process yielded a 24-item Language Learner Well-being Scale, exhibiting robust psychometric properties, including face, content, construct validity, and internal reliability. Results from exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses uncovered a four-factor model of language learner well-being – enjoyment, connectedness, meaning, and competence – which represent the key pillars of flourishing among CHL learners. This multi-dimensional model provides potential pathways through which flourishing can be actively promoted in HL learning, with implications that are applicable to wider second/foreign language learning contexts. By exploring what constitutes well-being and developing an effective measure, the study also sets the stage for meaningful interventions in the future to optimise students’ language learning experience.

Occupational Safety, Health, and Well-Being Concerns and Solutions for Management Reported by Sign Language Interpreters: A Qualitative Study

While the occupational health of sign language interpreters has traditionally focused on physical health, evidence demonstrating mental health concerns is growing and supporting a shift to a more integrated approach. We embarked on a qualitative study to guide the adaptation of a previously developed Total Worker Health® program to the context of sign language interpreting. Eight unstructured 90-min focus groups were conducted. Interpreters reported occupational safety, health, and well-being concerns and shared their solutions for management. Twenty-seven interpreters participated (aged 53.7 years; 81% female; 85% white). Predominant concerns centered on topics like workplace violence, secondary traumatic stress or vicarious trauma, lack of work–life integration or boundaries, and loss of agency or loss of self. The organizational culture of the field fostered deprioritization of self, oppression, elitism, sexism, and unhealthy relationships with interpreter peers and community members. Physical health remained a contributor, specifically the physical effects of non-physical work, aging, and differences in exposures across interpreting settings but paled in comparison to mental health and organizational culture. Solutions for management included but were not limited to prioritization of jobs, creating safe spaces/communities of supported practice, and exercise. This study supports the evolution of future research, practice, policy, and capacity building aspiring to a more integrated approach.

AI‐Mediated Communication in EFL Classrooms: The Role of Technical and Pedagogical Stimuli and the Mediating Effects of AI Literacy and Enjoyment

ABSTRACTThis study leverages the Stimulus‐Organism‐Response (S‐O‐R) framework to investigate the effects of teacher and technical support (TCHS) on learners' willingness to communicate (WTC) in artificial intelligence (AI)‐enhanced English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts, considering the mediating effects of learners' artificial intelligence literacy (AIL) and foreign language enjoyment (FLE). A quantitative survey encompassing 637 non‐English major university students across four institutions was conducted. Structural equation modelling (SEM) results demonstrated that teacher support (TEAS) exerts a direct influence on learners' WTC, whereas TCHS does not. The study also revealed that AIL and FLE significantly mediate the relationship between teacher and TCHS and learners’ WTC. The findings underscore the pivotal role of cognitive and affective factors, emphasising the substantial impact of TEAS and the value of nurturing learners’ AIL and enjoyment of foreign languages. This research offers strategic implications for educational practitioners and policymakers, advocating for the integration of innovative educational technologies and fostering sustainable growth in artificial intelligence in education.

Changes in Language Learners’ Affect: A Complex Dynamic Systems Theory Perspective

AbstractThis study investigated changes in motivation, self‐efficacy beliefs, and a range of emotions, including enjoyment, hope, pride, curiosity, anxiety, boredom, apathy, confusion, and shame, from a complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) perspective over a 2‐year period in the Hungarian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context. Using the same questionnaire, we collected data four times throughout 4 semesters from 101 participants studying English in two Hungarian high schools. For data analysis, we used latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) to detect the group‐level changes in learners’ motivation, self‐efficacy, and emotions. We also employed dynamic cluster analysis to identify trends in learners’ trajectories regarding these variables. In our panel data, linear models described the data well concerning the ought‐to second language (L2) self, language learning experience, boredom, apathy, and confusion, and for enjoyment, curiosity, anxiety, and shame, nonlinear models had the best fit. We could also identify trajectories depicting attractor states and learner paths that featured influences of perturbations.