Language Acquisition Research Articles

Wh-Words: Existential or Universal Quantifiers in Child Mandarin?

Wh-words have been analysed as existential quantifiers (Chierchia in Logic in grammar: polarity, free choice, and intervention. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2013; Fox, in Sauerland U, Stateva P (eds) Presupposition and implicature in compositional semantics (Palgrave studies in pragmatics, language and cognition). Palgrave MacMillan, Houndmills, pp 71-120, 2007; Liao in Alternative and exhaustification: non-interrogative uses of Chinese wh-words. Harvard University, 2010) or universal quantifiers (Nishigauchi, in: Theoretical and applied linguistics at Kobe Shoin 2, Kobe Shoin Institute for Linguistic Sciences, 1999). These two accounts have distinct predictions on how children initially interpret wh-words. The universal account predicts that children should initially interpret wh-words as universal quantifiers, whereas the existential account anticipates that children should start out with the existential interpretation. To adjudicate between the two accounts, the present study was designed to explore pre-schoolers' semantic knowledge of wh-quantification. Specifically, it investigated the interpretation of the wh-word shenme 'what' with 4-and 5-year-old Mandarin-speaking children and a control group of adults. Using a Truth Value Judgment Task (Crain and Thornton in Investigations in universal grammar: a guide to experiments on the acquisition of syntax and semantics. MIT Press, Cambridge, 1998), Experiment 1 evaluated whether children interpret the wh-word shenme 'what' as closer in meaning to the polarity sensitive item renhe 'any' or the universal quantifier suoyou 'all' in the antecedent of ruguo 'if' conditionals. Using a Question-Answer Task, Experiments 2 & 3 respectively investigated whether children interpret shenme 'what' as closer in meaning to renhe 'any' or suoyou 'all' in two types of questions: yes-no questions with the particle ma and A-not-A questions. It was found that both children and adults interpret shenme 'what' as closer in meaning to renhe 'any' than suoyou 'all'. The findings suggest that Mandarin-speaking pre-schoolers already have adult-like semantic knowledge of wh-quantification: wh-words are existential quantifiers rather than universal quantifiers. Due to the paucity of primary linguistic input, children's early mastery of the non-interrogative wh-words appear to support the biolinguistic approach to language acquisition (Chomsky in Aspects of the theory of syntax. MIT Press, Cambridge, 1965; Pinker in Language learnability and language development. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1984; Crain et al. in Language acquisition from a biolinguistic perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.004 ).

퀼봇(Quillbot)보조 바꿔 쓰기 활동이 대학 신입생의 영어 어휘 습득에 미친 영향 연구

Objectives This study explored the effects of Quillbot-assisted paraphrasing practice on EFL college students’ English vocabulary acquisition and their attitude toward of Quillbot-paraphraser use. Methods Divided into two, the experimental group (n = 17) performed paraphrasing writing tasks with Quillbot-paraphraser whereas the control group (n = 18) completed the same tasks without it. The two groups took vocabulary quizzes at two-week intervals and the experimental group responded to the questionnaire concerning their perception toward Quillbot-paraphraser use. By Mann-Whitney U test, comparisons were made on each quiz score between the groups and the responses on the questionnaire of the experimental group were analyzed by content. Results The result found no statistically significant differences in the vocabulary quiz scores of the two groups, but the analyses of the students of the experimental group showed that Quillbot-paraphraser use certainly helped their paraphrasing performance, extending their vocabulary knowledge in depth, aiding them to comprehend sen-tence structures better, and making them aware of distorted sentences. Conclusions There remained limitations in that the Quillbot-paraphraser provided distorted sentences that were different from the students’ intended meanings and was unable to provide detailed explanations related to its vo-cabulary choices. Thus, it seems important students themselves to have an keen eyes to identify problems with the results provided by AI tools. It is hoped that further studies will lead to in-depth discussions on the new role of teachers and on discoveries of new strategies for implementing AI tool-assisted writing tasks, calling teachers’ facilitating supports in the classrooms.

초등 영어몰입교육에 대한 학습자와 학부모의 인식 비교 연구

Objectives The purposes of this study were to investigate the perceptions and opinions of elementary school stu-dents and parents regarding English immersion education in the context of the EFL environment in Korea, in order to understand the role of English immersion education in promoting natural and autonomous language acquisition. Methods A survey was conducted among elementary school students in grades 3-6 and their parents residing in Gangbuk district, Seoul, to assess their perceptions of English immersion education. Independent sample t-tests were performed to analyze the data. The survey instrument covered various aspects of English immersion education, including general satisfaction, learning styles, academic achievement, and the effectiveness of English language skills. Results The results of this study indicate that both learners and parents showed high satisfaction with English im-mersion education, with no significant differences between the two groups. English immersion education had a positive impact on learners and parents in terms of affective domain, learning style, and general academic achievement. Particularly, parents perceived that English immersion education had a greater effect on enhancing learners' learning interest and confidence. Furthermore, both learners and parents recognized the positive effects of English immersion education on reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills, with differences in perception and effectiveness ranking observed, especially in reading and speaking domains. Both learners and parents showed minimal awareness of the drawbacks of English immersion education. Furthermore, both groups ex-pressed a positive attitude towards the full implementation of English immersion education, recognizing its po-tential to enhance English proficiency and practical communication skills. Conclusions Based on the findings of this study, both learners and parents acknowledge the positive effects of English immersion education, highlighting its potential to enhance students' English proficiency and practical communication skills, thus playing a crucial role in achieving the goals of elementary English education.

Promoting critical reading instruction in higher education: a three-step training scheme facilitated by using corpus technology

Abstract This study examines the development of students’ cognitive skills through hands-on concordancing, also known as the inductive Data-driven learning (DDL) method (Cobb, T. 1997. Is there any measurable learning from hands-on concordancing? System 25(3). 301–315). This method involves learners directly using concordance software to identify language rules by observing and working with concordance results. While previous research has explored DDL’s role in language acquisition, its impact on cognitive growth has received less attention. Building on a corpus-based language pedagogy (CBLP) (Ma, Q., J. Tang & S. Lin. 2022a. The development of corpus-based language pedagogy for TESOL teachers: A two-step training approach facilitated by online collaboration. Computer Assisted Language Learning 35(9). 2731–2760, Ma, Q., R. Yuan, L. M. E. Cheung & J. Yang. 2022b. Teacher paths for developing corpus-based language pedagogy: A case study. Computer Assisted Language Learning. 1–32), we designed a three-step training scheme that included an online task, a computer lab lesson, and a student independent corpus exploration task. The study involved 45 second-year English majors. The data were collected through surveys, interviews, and written reports, focusing on student learning of cognitive skills such as speculating, noticing, inferring, and verifying, as synthesized by Chun (2011. Learners as corpus researchers: Developing cognitive skills through hands-on concordancing. Foreign Languages Education 18(3). 73–103). The results indicate a positive response to the CBLP, with students’ independent exploration task contributing to improved critical reading and thinking skills. This highlights the effectiveness of our three-step CBLP scheme in developing cognitive skills and enhancing independent research. Overall, the study emphasizes the potential of hands-on concordancing and CBLP in fostering critical reading skills.

Learner corpus research: a critical appraisal and roadmap for contributing (more) to SLA research agendas

Abstract Over the past decade, learner corpora have gained recognition as valuable data sources in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research. This development can be attributed to significant progress in Learner Corpus Research (LCR). However, there is still substantial work to be done. This article highlights key issues essential for sustaining the relevance of learner corpora in SLA. More particularly, I focus on the need for more diverse types of learner corpora, stress the importance of detailed metadata, and advocate for multifactorial study designs. I then revisit ongoing debates regarding the role of the native speaker in LCR and propose a practical solution to address this thorny issue. Finally, I also readdress the need for improvement in the quantitative methods and statistics, arguing that the importance of robust quantitative analysis cannot be overstated. In conclusion, I envision an ambitious learner corpus compilation project that adheres to the FAIR principles, with the goal of further elevating study quality in LCR.

Bias in perceptual learning.

Perceptual learning is commonly understood as conferring some benefit to the learner, such as allowing for the extraction of more information from the environment. However, perceptual learning can be biased in several different ways, some of which do not appear to provide such a benefit. Here we outline a systematic framework for thinking about bias in perceptual learning and discuss how several cases fit into this framework. We argue these biases are compatible with an understanding in which perceptual learning is beneficial, but that its benefits are tied to both a person's narrow interests and the training environment or domain, and so if there are changes to either of these, then benefits can turn into liabilities, though these are often temporary. This article is categorized under: Psychology > Learning Philosophy > Value Linguistics > Language Acquisition.

CHALLENGES IN ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP) TEACHING MATERIALS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW FOR MODERN LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

This systematic literature review (SLR) examines the evolution, effectiveness, and challenges associated with English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teaching materials, with a focus on their integration of digital technologies, learner-centered design, and cultural inclusivity. Through a comprehensive analysis guided by the PRISMA method, 87 studies from 2000 to 2023 were evaluated. The findings reveal a significant shift towards incorporating digital tools in ESP materials, highlighting the growing emphasis on creating immersive and interactive learning experiences. Additionally, the review underscores the importance of developing materials tailored to the learners' specific needs and cultural contexts, facilitating more meaningful engagement and language acquisition. Despite the observed benefits, challenges such as the necessity for ongoing teacher training and the absence of standardized evaluation frameworks for ESP materials were identified. Recommendations include enhancing digital integration, prioritizing learner-centered and culturally inclusive materials, investing in teacher training, developing evaluation frameworks, fostering collaborative material development, ensuring accessibility, and conducting longitudinal impact studies. This SLR sets a foundation for future research and development in ESP material design and implementation, aiming to support learners' language learning goals and professional aspirations effectively.

Statistical Insignificance is not wholesale transfer in L3 Acquisition: an approximate replication of Rothman (2011)

Abstract This study was an approximate replication of Rothman (2011),examining the determiner phrase syntax of a large sample (n = 211) of L3 learners of Portuguese who spoke English and Spanish. Rothman (2011) investigated whether L3 Italian or Brazilian Portuguese speakers are differently impacted by another known Romance Language, if it was their L1 or L2. The original study concluded that groups did not perform differently on experimental tasks on the basis of a null effect, and that the typological similarity of Spanish, Portuguese, or Italian predicts transfer in the initial stages of L3 acquisition. The present replication recreated all materials, which were unavailable, and examined the same population and questions. However, rather than examining L3 Italian and L3 Brazilian Portuguese, the present work maintained a constant L3 Portuguese. Learners were divided into two groups in a mirror-image design (n = 96 L1 English-L2 Spanish, n = 115 L1 Spanish-L2 English), and data were collected online. Like the original study, there was no main effect of group in any of the two-way analyses of variance. However, results show that it should not be assumed that experimental groups behave equivalently based on a null effect: Of the four total post hoc tests of equivalence, only two were significant when the equivalence bounds were set at a small effect size (d = $ \pm $ .4). Ultimately, it is argued that determining the smallest effect size of interest and subsequent equivalence testing are necessary to answer key questions in the field of L3 acquisition.

Improving English Language Proficiency through Podcasts: A Multifaceted Educational Approach

This paper probes into the strength of podcasts in building the English language through varied dimensions of a learning approach. The paper sought to establish the applicability of podcasts in the learning of languages among EFL students, given that podcasts are increasingly becoming an informal learning platform. The study was carried out among learners of different age groups and language proficiency levels, and the collection of statistics regarding the use of podcasts within language learning was affected through both quantitative and qualitative data. Important findings indicate that regular use of podcasts can make the process of vocabulary acquisition, listening comprehension, and general proficiency stronger. Such findings support the use of podcasts in gaining better language competence in that it not only presents rich contextual content in an accessible manner but also puts into play learner skills. In effect, the inclusion of podcasts into the learning curriculum has implications that are far-reaching in that it could offer an effective improvement in the traditional methodologies of language learning by enhancing a dynamic and flexible learning environment that meets the needs of all learners. This research paper points out the imperative nature of podcasts in modern educational strategies and suggests their application in a wider context of language learning frameworks to bring about superior linguistic competence.

Acquisition of Acehnese Language Phonemes in 2-4 Year Old Children

The aims of this research are; 1) Describe the theory of acquiring the Acehnese language in children aged 2-4 years, 2) Describe the process of acquiring the Acehnese language in children aged 2-4 years. This research was conducted using a qualitative approach with a phenomenological type. The subjects of this research were 2 children aged 2-4 years, the first child from Gampong Meunasah Mampree, Syamtalira Aron District, North Aceh Regency, and the second child from Gampong Blang, Tanah Pasir District, North Aceh Regency. Data collection techniques use observation and question and answer. The data obtained was then compiled in the form of observation field notes and questions and answers for children aged 2-4 years which were then analyzed to determine the acquisition of Acehnese language phonemes used by children aged 2 years in their daily lives. Based on the research results, it can be concluded that the language acquisition of Muhammad Aksan Rafassya aged 3 years is very good. The research subjects had mastered vowel and consonant sounds. At the age of 2 years Aksan was able to own and master words in his surroundings. This is also strengthened by mastery of nouns, adjectives and verbs. Meanwhile, Hidayatul Azizi's language acquisition at the age of 2 years is not good because he is not yet very fluent in pronouncing consonant sounds. However, at the age of 2 years Hidayatul Azizi was able to pronounce vowel sounds well. The vowel sounds that Hidayatul Azizi already pronounces fluently are the words 'jeut', 'loen', and the word 'itek'.

Evaluating structure and content of parent-implemented early logopaedic intervention models following the three stages of communicative development in children with cleft lip and/or palate: Systematic literature review with narrative synthesis.

The development of communication, speech and language follows three stages (development of the parent-child relationship, interactions and actual speech and language acquisition). Children born with cleft lip and/or palate are at increased risk of communicative problems while parents may be going through an emotionally difficult time. Early parent-implemented logopaedic intervention that supports both parents and child is important. Three systematic reviews have examined the effects of early speech and language interventions, but not their structure and content. To investigate which early parent-implemented logopaedic interventions already exist for children with cleft lip and/or palate, and to evaluate their structure, content and time of onset against the three stages of communicative development. Six databases (PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, APA PsycInfo, Cinahl and Scopus) were searched between inception and 31 March 2023 to identify published articles that reported early parent-implemented logopaedic interventions in children with cleft lip and/or palate, aged 0 to 3 years, clearly describing the strategies used to train parents. Two authors independently assessed the eligibility of the studies. Quality assessment was conducted using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database quality assessment tool, Single-Case Experimental Design tool and the National Institutes of Health pre-post-study tools. The structure and content of the interventions were analysed taking into account the needs and difficulties of both the parents and the child according to the three stages of communicative development. The systematic literature search identified four studies that met the inclusion criteria. Three of them had a Level of Evidence III and one study had a Level of Evidence IV. Strategies appropriate for Stage 1 of communicative development (parent-child relationship) are well represented in only one study, but the psychosocial needs of parents are currently not included in these programmes. However, research shows that parental emotional difficulties can adversely impact a child's communicative development. Strategies appropriate for Stage 2 (promoting social interactions) are better represented. However, strategies appropriate for Stage 3 (acquiring correct speech and language patterns) are most represented in all intervention programmes. Three out of four intervention programmes focus on Stage 3 (actual speech and language stimulation). Stage 1 is underrepresented and the psychosocial needs of parents are currently not included in existing intervention programmes. Further research is needed in close collaboration with psychologists to construct a comprehensive, longitudinal, developmentally appropriate intervention programme that equally represents the three stages of communicative development and considers the psychosocial needs of parents. What is already known on the subject Children with cleft lip and/or palate are at increased risk of speech and language problems from birth. Parents of these children often have emotional problems following their child's diagnosis. The effectiveness of early intervention to facilitate the child's speech and language development has already been proven. Early intervention is recommended for both parents and child, but little is known about early parent-implemented logopaedic interventions that also provide psychosocial support for parents. What this paper adds to existing knowledge This review has shown that existing early parent-implemented logopaedic interventions for children with cleft lip and/or palate focus mainly on facilitating responsive interactions and actual speech and language development (Stages 2 and 3 of communicative development). However, Stage 1, where the parent-child relationship develops, is currently not included, even though this stage is a prerequisite of subsequent stages. If parents are struggling with emotional problems (following their child's diagnosis) this can negatively impact their mental health, the parent-child relationship, attachment and their child's development. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? A clinical implication of the findings in this review is that more attention should be paid to Stage 1 of communicative development in early parent-implemented logopaedic interventions. By working closely with the psychologist of the cleft (and craniofacial) team, any psychosocial needs of the parents can be included in the counselling. As a result, the parents and their child are seen and supported as a unit and the parent-child relationship can develop optimally.

Interactive learning of natural sign language with radar

AbstractOver the past decade, there have been great advancements in radio frequency sensor technology for human–computer interaction applications, such as gesture recognition, and human activity recognition more broadly. While there is a significant amount of study on these topics, in most cases, experimental data are acquired in controlled settings by directing participants what motion to articulate. However, especially for communicative motions, such as sign language, such directed data sets do not accurately capture natural, in situ articulations. This results in a difference in the distribution of directed American Sign Language (ASL) versus natural ASL, which severely degrades natural sign language recognition in real‐world scenarios. To overcome these challenges and acquire more representative data for training deep models, the authors develop an interactive gaming environment, ChessSIGN, which records video and radar data of participants as they play the game without any external direction. The authors investigate various ways of generating synthetic samples from directed ASL data, but show that ultimately such data does not offer much improvement over just initialising using imagery from ImageNet. In contrast, an interactive learning paradigm is proposed by the authors in which model training is shown to improve as more and more natural ASL samples are acquired and augmented via synthetic samples generated from a physics‐aware generative adversarial network. The authors show that the proposed approach enables the recognition of natural ASL in a real‐world setting, achieving an accuracy of 69% for 29 ASL signs—a 60% improvement over conventional training with directed ASL data.

Predictions of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Native and Non-Native Languages: An Update of BLC Theory

BLC Theory proposes that individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency (in both native and non-native speakers) can poorly be mapped on a single proficiency scale. Instead, IDs can best be understood and studied in terms of two fundamentally different dimensions: (1) the cognition of oral language (receptive and productive speech processing) and (2) the cognition of the written language (reading and writing). This paper presents an update of BLC Theory placed under a non-nativist, usage-based, neural-network metatheory of language as a complex system. The paper includes predictions for the absence or presence of IDs in the oral and written domains, separately for native and non-native speakers. The theory predicts that while cognitive factors such as executive functions, non-verbal memory, and intelligence positively affect the acquisition of reading and writing skills in both native and non-native speakers, they do not play a significant role in the acquisition of speech processing in either native or non-native speakers. Contrary to folk wisdom, one does not need to be particularly intelligent to learn to understand and produce speech in a non-native language. Attention is given to typological differences between children’s home language(s) and the standard language(s) of literacy.

Exploring English language Related Anxiety in Higher Education Context of Pakistan: Teachers’ Perspective

Language-related anxiety is a psychological phenomenon that occurs either during the process of language acquisition or the academic process of an individual’s life. The usage of English as the medium of instruction leads to this anxiety in higher education context of Pakistan. Students’ poor performance and heightened anxiety remain significant concerns in the field of language education. This qualitative paper through in-depth interviews from the faculty members investigates the manifestations of English language anxiety in classroom settings, particularly focusing on variations across educational streams, distinguishing between students from the matriculation and those educated in the Cambridge system. The findings reveal a multifaceted landscape of language anxiety, influenced by educational backgrounds, unfamiliar teaching methodologies, fear of evaluation and educational trajectories. Moreover, the research identifies recommendations and steps taken by faculty to lessen this anxiety. The findings support the importance of tailoring conducive mechanisms to address these disparities. This may result in the facilitation of a more inclusive educational environment that empowers students to overcome language anxiety and excel academically.

Breaking Down Walls: Challenges in Teaching English to School Level Students

This paper addresses the challenges associated with English language instruction in rural schools of India. The language policy in school education poses both societal and individual hurdles. The prevailing quality of English language education in many Indian schools is concerning, with issues such as teacher proficiency, access to language resources, and instructional materials being primary concerns. Rural students face particularly arduous circumstances, lacking the resources and opportunities available to their urban counterparts, such as language labs and audio-visual aids. English is often perceived as a subject rather than a language by rural students, hindering their engagement and proficiency. Many students approach English studies solely for examination purposes, focusing on rote memorization rather than genuine language acquisition. This fear of English is compounded by the limited vision of some teachers, who prioritize exam results over long-term student development. Key Words: Rural, proficiency, circumstances, acquisition, resources memorization

Exploring the Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI-based) English Games in Enhancing English Communication Skills among Indonesian L2 Generation Z

The role of artificial intelligence (AI-based) English games in enhancing English communication skills among Indonesian Generation Z (Gen-Z) for whom English is a second language (L2), is the main focus of this study. Questionnaires to collect data consisted of both open and closed-ended questions. Seventy-eight Indonesian Gen- Z from different parts of Indonesia participated, and provides a strong representation of the country. This study is aimed to address a gap in the present literature by directly engaging with game players and examining their perspectives and experiences with actual games that they play for enjoyment rather than games designed for educational purposes. The study’s findings show that English AI-based games significantly help respondents develop their vocabulary, improve comprehension, and acquire confidence in English speaking. The findings also indicate that English AI-based game learning is favoured over traditional methods. The respondents noted gaming's immersive and interactive aspect as beneficial to language acquisition and skill development. These findings emphasise the transformative potential of English AI-based games in language learning and advocate for their integration into educational frameworks to better fulfil the needs of L2 learners, particularly Gen-Z.

Gamification as a Didactic Motivator in Low-Resource Public English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Classrooms in Ecuador

The present article explores the feasibility and impacts of Gamification as a motivational tool in classrooms within low-resource public institutions in Ecuador, particularly in teaching English as a Foreign Language. By integrating game design elements into the educational process, teachers tend to enhance student motivation, thus creating a more effective environment for language learning. Traditionally, educators in Ecuadorian public institutions face challenges in engaging students in their classes, often due to outdated teaching methodologies and limited access to educational and technological resources. This study focuses on how gamification can increase student motivation and foster a more stimulating and enjoyable learning environment in low-resource settings concerning English as a Foreign Language instruction. Through the incorporation of gaming elements, teachers can improve language acquisition, student engagement, and encourage collaborative learning, as evidenced by previous studies. The utilization of a qualitative-deductive approach allowed for data collection through an extensive literature review across various educational contexts. Results suggest that Gamification offers a promising perspective for overcoming challenges in traditional education, promoting active student participation. Additionally, the findings highlight the potential of Gamification to revolutionize teaching practice and enrich the entire educational experience.

[SI 21/3] L3 English in the German secondary school context: longitudinal development of bilingual heritage speakers’ multilingual repertoire

ABSTRACT A multilingual experience can be considered a significant asset. However, since the earliest studies in the field, research has reported mixed results regarding potential advantages such as increased cognitive ability and metalinguistic awareness. Moreover, studies investigating the influence of bilingualism/multilingualism on the acquisition of additional languages produced partially conflicting findings. This longitudinal study (three measurement time points within 1.5 years) investigates the impact of social, cognitive, and linguistic variables on English proficiency. We rely on data gathered from 374 unbalanced bilinguals (Russian-/Turkish-German), dominant in German, and 600 monolingual (German) students attending grades seven to ten in Germany. We use multiple linear regression models predicting English proficiency to track longitudinal changes. The results show that German reading proficiency and visual-spatial cognitive ability positively impact L2/L3 English C-test scores. In addition, the impact of heritage language proficiency is not statistically significant and language background did not bring about clear differences between the monolingual and bilingual cohorts per se. We conclude that there are differences between the Turkish-German students and their peers, but not between the monolinguals and Russian-German students. We discuss these findings in light of current teaching approaches prevailing in Germany's foreign language classrooms and perceptions of heritage languages in society.

Beyond English centrality: integrating expansive conceptions of language for literacy programming into IEPs

This article addresses the English centrality in reading policy, assessment, and instructional practices in the U.S. and its implications for the educational programing for emerging bilingual students (EBs) with disabilities. A recent review of the state of practice as it relates to EBs with disabilities reveals concerns that have endured for nearly six decades: biased assessment, disproportionality issues in special education, and teachers’ lack of understanding of language acquisition and students’ potential. These concerns demonstrate a need for the field to prioritize multilingual lenses for both the identification of and programming for EBs with disabilities. We propose attention to conceptions of language that expand beyond the structuralist standpoint that prevails in the current science of reading reform. We offer guiding principles for IEP development grounded in sociocultural perspectives when designing bilingual instructional practices, which can be applied to the educational programming for EBs with disabilities. Within a sociocultural view of bilingualism and biliteracy, language, and literacy are understood by multiplicities in use, practice, form, and function, in which all communicators draw from expansive meaning-making repertoires, whether in listening, speaking, reading, writing, viewing, and multimodally representing. By expanding conceptions of a student’s linguistic repertoire, we honor their use of language as one, holistic system in which their named languages plus a multitude of linguistic practices intersect and interact.

Cognitive linguistics-inspired language instruction

Second language acquisition (SLA) or second/foreign language teaching has been influenced to various degrees by key linguistic theories, including structural linguistics (Bloomfield, 1933; Saussure, 1959), generative linguistics (Chomsky, 1957, 1965), systemic functional linguistics (Halliday, 1973), and, more recently, contemporary Cognitive Linguistics (CL; Goldberg, 1995; Lakoff, 1987, 1993; Langacker, 1987, 1991; Talmy, 1988, 2000), a theory composed of several related linguistic approaches often viewed as a response or complement to generative linguistics. While structural linguistics, generative linguistics, and systemic functional linguistics have each provided a theoretical impetus for one or more of the prominent language teaching methods or approaches over the past century (such as the Audiolingual method, the Natural method, and the Communicative Language Teaching method), CL, as a newcomer, has begun to exert a growing influence since the early 1990s. Given that the purpose of this research timeline article is to present a historical overview of the key thoughts and studies on CL-inspired approaches to instructed second language acquisition (ISLA),1 a brief discussion of CL's main differences from the other linguistic theories and its key theoretical tenets is in order.