Landscape Fragmentation Index Research Articles

Assessing the responses of ecosystem patterns, structures and functions to drought under climate change in the Yellow River Basin, China

Understanding how ecosystems respond and adapt to drought has become an urgent issue as drought stress intensifies under climate change, yet this topic is not fully understood. Currently, conclusions on the response of ecosystems in different regions to drought disturbance are inconsistent. Based on long MODIS data and observed data, this study systematically explored the relationships between ecosystem patterns, structures and functions and drought, taking a typical climate change-sensitive area and an ecologically fragile area—the Yellow River Basin—as a case study. Drought assessment results revealed that the Yellow River Basin has experienced meteorological and hydrological drought during most of the last two decades, predominantly characterized by medium and slight droughts. The ecosystem patterns and structures changed dramatically as the grassland decreased and the landscape fragmentation index (F) increased with increasing wetness. The annual gross primary productivity (GPP) increased, the water use efficiency (WUE) declined and ecosystem service value (ESV) exhibited a W-shaped increase at the watershed scale, but there were significant regional differences. There were positive correlations between F, GPP, ESV and drought indices, while there was a negative correlation between WUE and drought indices at the watershed scale. Under drought stress, the ecosystem structure in the basin was disrupted, the GPP and ESV decreased, but the WUE increased. Notably, approximately 106 %, 20 %, and 1 % of the maximum reductions in F, GPP, and ESV, respectively, were caused by drought, while the maximum 4 % of WUE increased. Responses of some functions in the wetland and grassland to drought vary from those in other ecosystems. The mechanisms underlying ecosystem responses to drought were further investigated. This study enhances the understanding of these responses and will help stakeholders formulate drought mitigation policies and protect ecosystem health.

Spatiotemporal assessment of the nexus between urban sprawl and land surface temperature as microclimatic effect: implications for urban planning.

Rapid urbanisation has led to significant environmental and climatic changes worldwide, especially in urban heat islands where increased land surface temperature (LST) poses a major challenge to sustainable urban living. In the city of Abha in southwestern Saudi Arabia, a region experiencing rapid urban growth, the impact of such expansion on LST and the resulting microclimatic changes are still poorly understood. This study aims to explore the dynamics of urban sprawl and its direct impact on LST to provide important insights for urban planning and climate change mitigation strategies. Using the random forest (RF) algorithm optimised for land use and land cover (LULC) mapping, LULC models were derived that had an overall accuracy of 87.70%, 86.27% and 93.53% for 1990, 2000 and 2020, respectively. The mono-window algorithm facilitated the derivation of LST, while Markovian transition matrices and spatial linear regression models assessed LULC dynamics and LST trends. Notably, built-up areas grew from 69.40 km2 in 1990 to 338.74 km2 in 2020, while LST in urban areas showed a pronounced warming trend, with temperatures increasing from an average of 43.71°C in 1990 to 50.46°C in 2020. Six landscape fragmentation indices were then calculated for urban areas over three decades. The results show that the Largest Patch Index (LPI) increases from 22.78 in 1990 to 65.24 in 2020, and the number of patches (NP) escalates from 2,531 in 1990 to an impressive 10,710 in 2020. Further regression analyses highlighted the morphological changes in the cities and attributed almost 97% of the LST variability to these urban patch dynamics. In addition, water bodies showed a cooling trend with a temperature decrease from 33.76°C in 2000 to 29.69°C in 2020, suggesting an anthropogenic influence. The conclusion emphasises the urgent need for sustainable urban planning to counteract the warming trends associated with urban sprawl and promote climate resilience.

Adaptive Distribution and Vulnerability Assessment of Endangered Maple Species on the Tibetan Plateau

Climate change has had an almost irreversible impact on the distribution patterns of tree species on the Tibetan Plateau, driving some vulnerable species to the brink of extinction. Therefore, it is important to assess the vulnerability of tree species in climate-sensitive areas under the following three IPCC-CMIP6 scenarios: SSP126, SSP370, and SSP585. The MaxEnt model was used to predict adaptive distribution for one endangered (Acer wardii W. W. Smith (A. wardii)) and six vulnerable maple plants on the Tibetan Plateau under current and future conditions. We then evaluated their vulnerability using the landscape fragmentation index. Our results showed that the current adaptive areas of vulnerable maple species were mainly distributed in the southeast of the Tibetan Plateau. The dominant factors affecting adaptive areas were temperature annual range (BIO7) for Acer sikkimense Miq. and Acer sterculiaceum Wall.; annual precipitation (BIO12) for Acer cappadocicum Gled.; precipitation of driest month (BIO14) for Acer pectinatum Wall. ex G. Nicholson, Acer taronense Hand.-Mazz., and A. wardii; and subsoil clay fraction (S_CLAY) for Acer campbellii Hook.f. & Thoms. ex Hiern (A. campbellii) Under the three future scenarios, the adaptive areas of maple on the Tibetan Plateau area shifted to the northwest, and habitat suitability increased in the northwestern part of the adaptive areas. In the SSP370 scenario, all seven species showed an increase in adaptive areas, while certain species decreased in some periods under the SSP126 and SSP585 scenarios. The status of the endangered maple species is likely to be even more fragile under the three future scenarios. A. wardii and A. campbellii are more vulnerable and may face extinction, requiring immediate attention and protection. In contrast, the vulnerability of the remaining five species decreased. In conclusion, this study provides recommendations for conserving vulnerable maple species on the Tibetan Plateau. Our data support understanding the distributional changes and vulnerability assessment of these tree species.

Spatial planning constraints will mitigate the fragmentation trajectory of natural and semi-natural landscapes: a case of Lushan City, China

ContextThe biodiversity faces an underlying threat from landscape fragmentation resulting from rapid urbanization. Examining the future trajectory of landscape fragmentation is imperative to understanding the impact of current spatial planning constraints on natural and semi-natural habitat preservation, ecosystem services, and sustainability.MethodsWe employed a Patch-generating Land Use Simulation (PLUS) model to simulate and predict the land use and landscape pattern changes in Lushan City under two distinct scenarios: “Planning Constraints (PC)” and “Natural Development (ND)”. We then identified an appropriate landscape fragmentation index (LFI) that effectively captured the fragmentation essence. To determine the optimal scale, we adopted an experimental approach using both the moving window (MW) method and the semi-variance function. By constructing a LFI spatiotemporal sequence and conducting trend analysis, we identified the potential fragmentation areas (PFA) with significant fragmentation tendencies.ResultsThe spatial planning constraints will (1) prevent the encroachment of construction land into 2.14 km2 of cropland, 0.21 km2 of forest, and 0.13 km2 of grassland; (2) shift the highly fragmented area from the northeastern portion of Lushan to the planned area defined by the development boundary; (3) mitigate and decelerate the trend of landscape fragmentation in natural and semi-natural landscapes, decrease PFA by 7.74 km2 and preserve 15.61 km2 of natural landscapes. (4) still leave 29.42% of forest and 22.82% of grassland at risk of fragmentation.ConclusionsSpatial planning constraints will effectively control the potential fragmentation in natural and semi-natural landscapes by changing the spatial distribution of LFI and PFA. This control mechanism will greatly exclude the anthropogenic impact and ensure the conservation of habitats. The habitats remaining within PFA should be focused in future eco-management optimization.

Quantifying Spatiotemporal Characteristics and Identifying Influential Factors of Ecosystem Fragmentation in Karst Landscapes: A Comprehensive Analytical Framework

Guanling-Zhenfeng County, a microcosm of the ecologically fragile karst area in southwest China, experiences rapid population growth and urban expansion which intensifies land use transformation and ecological landscape fragmentation. Exploring the spatiotemporal characteristics of landscape fragmentation and its causes in Guanling-Zhenfeng County is of great significance in maintaining the stability of the ecosystem and ecological protection in karst areas. In this study, a comprehensive landscape fragmentation index (FI), geographic probe, multi-scale geographically weighted regression (MGWR), and PLUS model were used to quantitatively explore the spatiotemporal characteristic heterogeneity, causes, and future scenario projections of landscape fragmentation in Guanling-Zhenfeng County from 2000 to 2020. The results showed that: (1) the distribution of each landscape index was characterized by obvious spatial differentiation. Among them, the spatial distribution trends of patch density (PD) and largest patch index (LPI) were opposite and the distribution trends of Shannon diversity index (SHDI) and Shannon evenness index (SHEI) were similar. There were fewer heterogeneous patches in the study area from 2000 to 2020, and the landscape shape was more regular and less fragmented. (2) The overall landscape fragmentation in Guanling-Zhenfeng County from 2000 to 2020 was dominated by moderate fragmentation, with the smallest percentage of extreme fragmentation, and heavy fragmentation was mainly distributed in the north-central part of the study area. (3) Natural and social factors jointly affect the landscape fragmentation in Guanling-Zhenfeng County, and there is a significant interactive enhancement effect among the factors, with population density being the most important influence factor. In addition, the effects of the factors on landscape fragmentation showed significant spatial non-stationarity. (4) The characteristics of landscape fragmentation changes in Guanling-Zhenfeng County under different scenarios varied significantly, with the largest percentage of increase in heavy landscape fragmentation under the business-as-usual scenario (BAU), the next under the land use planning scenario (LUP), and the smallest under the ecological protection scenario (ESP).

Refining intra-patch connectivity measures in landscape fragmentation and connectivity indices

ContextMeasuring intra-patch connectivity, i.e. the connectivity within a habitat patch, is important to evaluate landscape fragmentation and connectivity. However, intra-patch connectivity is mainly measured with patch size, which can conceal diverse intra-patch connectivity patterns for similar patch size distributions.ObjectivesWe suggest a method to refine the intra-patch connectivity component of fragmentation and connectivity indices. This method allows for distinguishing different intra-patch connectivity patterns for similar patch size distributions.MethodsWe used normalized patch complexity indices to weight patch size in common fragmentation and connectivity indices. Patch complexity indices included two existing geometrical indices (SHAPE and FRAC), and a new index derived from spatial network analysis, the mean detour index (MDI). We analyzed the behaviours of adjusted fragmentation and connectivity indices theoretically and empirically on both artificial and real landscapes.ResultsWhile maintaining the mathematical properties of fragmentation and connectivity indices, our method could distinguish landscapes with identical patch size distributions but different spatial configurations. The mean detour index had a different response than geometrical indices. This result indicates that, at the patch level, topological complexity can exhibit different patterns from geometrical complexity.ConclusionsMeasuring intra-patch connectivity with patch size in fragmentation and connectivity indices cannot distinguish landscapes having similar patch sizes distribution but different spatial configurations. This paper introduces a method to distinguish such patterns relying on geometrical and topological indices and shows to which extent it can impact conservation planning.

An analysis on the spatial heterogeneity characteristics of landscape ecological risk in Qilian Mountain National Park

As a key ecological function area and a priority area for biodiversity conservation in China, Qilian Mountain National Park is facing a severe test of its ecological environment, and the study of its landscape ecological risk is of great significance to the construction and high-quality development of the Qilian Mountain National Park. In this research, based on land use data from six periods (i.e., year in 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020) in the Qilian Mountain National Park, we divided the ecological risk plots, calculated the landscape pattern, and constructed the landscape ecological risk index to deeply explore the temporal and spatial heterogeneity of landscape ecological risk in Qilian Mountain National Park by using ArcGIS, Fragstats and GeoDa. The results showed that: Grassland is the predominant land use type, the area covered by woodland and grassland have exhibited a significant increase since 1995. Landscape fragmentation and disturbance indices exhibit fluctuations across different years, but showed an overall decreasing trend, and landscape stability was improved in the study area. There were obvious differences in the disturbance indices of different landscape types, with grassland and bare land having the highest values. Ecological risk in the study area is heterogeneous, with an overall low ecological risk and a shift to a lower risk level, and a decreasing trend in ecological risk, which is positively correlated spatially and mainly manifested as a “low-low” aggregation. Global warming and unreasonable human activities have exacerbated the ecological degradation of Qilian Mountain National Park, but a series of ecological restoration strategies after the establishment of the national park have gradually improved the regional ecological environment.

Impacts of green-blue-grey infrastructures on high-density urban thermal environment at multiple spatial scales: A case study in Wuhan

Land surface temperature (LST) has been broadly applied to urban climate studies. However, the sensitivity of LST to urban green-blue-grey infrastructures (GBGI) is still not clear, particularly at multiple spatial scales. A case study at a high-density area in Wuhan investigated the impacts of 27 indicators, including area proportion (AP), plot ratio (PR), and landscape fragmentation index (LFI), on LST at ten different spatial scales. The effects of individual and combined GBGI characteristics on LST were examined with correlation tests and multiple regression models, respectively. In single-factor test, LST is most sensitive to blue infrastructure (BI) and grey infrastructure (GYI) at 1600 m. BI_AP, BI_PR, River_AP, GYI_AP, Pavement_AP, and Building_AP showed strong correlations with LST at all scales. Regarding GNI (green infrastructure), LST is the most sensitive to GNI_LFI and Woodland_LFI at 1600 m, while to GNI_AP and GNI_PR at 50 m. In the hybrid state, LST has the highest sensitivity to GBGI sub-components at the district scale (1200–1600 m) based on multiple regression models. Finally, we evaluated the efficiency of different GBGI-based strategies by comparing 12 designed scenarios. This study provides important references for selecting effective spatial scales and indicators to maximize cooling efficiency in urban climate research and planning.

Response of the Desertification Landscape Patterns to Spatial–Temporal Changes of Land Use: A Case Study of Salaxi in South China Karst

Land use change and karst desertification (KD) are interdependent. It is crucial to investigate the relationship between the KD landscape and spatial–temporal changes in land use for effective and sustainable KD management practices in karst plateau mountains. In this study, we analyzed the spatial and temporal characteristics, evolution in the pattern of land use, and KD in the Salaxi study area from 2009 to 2019, using the landscape pattern index and KD evolution trajectories, and discussed their response relationships. The results revealed the following: (1) In Salaxi, cultivated land predominantly transformed into shrubland, grassland, and woodland. The area of grassland, construction land, and garden land significantly increased, with respective increments of 379.85%, 157.14%, and 1847.81%. Conversely, the area of unutilized land decreased from 53.56 hm2 to 8.55 hm2, with the proportion declining from 0.62% to 0.10%. KD primarily occurs in shrubland, cultivated land, and woodland. (2) The areas of non-KD and potential KD have increased. There was a noticeable conversion of light and medium KD into potential KD, with areas of 1206.84 hm2 and 459.47 hm2, respectively. The KD landscape is dominated by stable and weakening ecological restoration. The comprehensive ranking of the incidence of soil KD in the study area is as follows: yellow soil > yellow-brown soil > coarse bone soil > limestone soil > purple soil. (3) The land use landscape index, the evenness index, and the fragmentation index in the demonstration area increased by 0.263, 0.120, and 0.534, respectively, while the KD landscape index, evenness index, and fragmentation index decreased by 0.360, 0.123, and 1.098, respectively. Additionally, the spreading index and aggregation index of the land use landscape decreased by 9.247 and 3.086, respectively, while the KD landscape’s spreading index and aggregation index increased by 6.688 and 0.430, respectively. Both the sub-dimension indexes of the land use landscape and the KD landscape increased by 0.009. Overall, the landscape pattern of KD changes in response to land use variations and different land types exhibited varying responses to KD. The study of KD and land use landscape patterns can provide references for national strategies on KD control and the development of ecological industries.

Evolution of farmland landscape fragmentation and its driving factors in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region

Farmland landscape fragmentation has become one of the main manifestations of global land use changes during the last century. Since the reform and opening-up in China, the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, as the representative region in China, has exhibited a continuous process of farmland landscape fragmentation. Scientifically revealing the spatiotemporal dynamics of farmland landscape fragmentation is of great significance for sustainable land management. Although the characteristics of farmland landscape fragmentation have been widely studied, measuring the dynamics of farmland landscape fragmentation from the perspectives of landforms and urban-rural variations remains poorly understood. This study relies on the comprehensively theoretical models to spatiotemporally identify farmland landscape fragmentation and applies a comprehensive index method that includes ArcGIS, FRAGSTATS landscape pattern analysis and the multiscale geographically weighted regression model to empirically analyse the spatial-temporal characteristics of farmland landscape fragmentation in China from 1980 to 2020. The results indicate that the value of the farmland landscape fragmentation index in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region is characterised by process of ‘slight increase-rapid decrease-continuous increase’. High farmland landscape fragmentation index values were observed in the northern and western Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei regions. Moreover, significant differences in farmland landscape fragmentation were observed under different macro landforms. The farmland landscape fragmentation index in the mountainous regions is much higher than in the plains. Furthermore, as the distance to Beijing's centre increases, the farmland landscape fragmentation index decreases in suburban and peri-urban areas. Finally, the results also reveal the driving factors of farmland landscape fragmentation. The results showed that the natural environment is always the crucial driver of farmland landscape fragmentation. Besides, social activities play an important role in the past, but economic development has a more significant coefficient these days. The findings of this study not only verify that the proposed theoretical framework is valid and provides a reference for future policy measures to protect farmland but also provide a basis for farmland landscape fragmentation from a multiscale perspective by, more precisely, identifying the heterogeneity of drivers.

Study on the Spatial and Temporal Evolution of the Ecological Environmental Quality in Linghekou Wetland

Coastal wetlands are located in the overland area between land and sea and play an important ecological role, but social and economic development and the acceleration of urbanization have resulted in the degradation of the ecological functions of coastal wetlands and serious pollution within the wetlands. The study of the spatial and temporal changes in the ecological environmental quality of coastal wetlands can suggest feasible response strategies for the ecological construction of coastal wetlands. This study uses RS and GIS technology, based on the PSR model, AHP method and InVEST model, to study the spatial and temporal changes in the ecological environmental quality of the Linghekou wetland and to propose early warning on future ecological and environmental conditions. The results show the following: (1) The natural wetland area decreased, the landscape fragmentation index increased and the wetland landscape showed a degradation trend between 2005 and 2020. (2) The composite indices for the evaluation of the ecological environmental quality of the Linghekou wetland in 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2020 were 0.473, 0.380, 0.353 and 0.378, respectively, with the ecological environmental quality declining from a sub-healthy state in 2005 to a sub-sick state in 2020, with increasing interference from human activities, increasing differentiation of the internal organization of the wetlands and degradation of ecological services. (3) The habitat quality of the Linghekou wetland has improved since 2015 due to the implementation of local conservation measures, but the habitats are still under strong pressure from anthropogenic disturbance. (4) The predicted results for 2025 and 2030 show that the ecological environmental quality of the Linghekou wetland will continue to deteriorate in the future, especially in the northwestern and central-eastern parts of the study area, where anthropogenic disturbance will continue to intensify and habitat degradation will become more severe in the future. This study provides a scientific reference for coastal wetland management and ecological construction, and also enriches the research results on coastal wetlands in the field of ecological and environmental assessment.

How much wilderness is left? A roadless approach under the Global and the European Biodiversity Strategy focusing on Greece

Preserving ecosystems of high ecological integrity is a crucial target in Biodiversity Strategies, also serving the 10 % target of strict land protection in the European Union (EU). We recommend roadless mapping to delineate wilderness and monitor progress against loss in natural areas. We mapped Greece's roadless land and assessed its ecological attributes. It accounted for 6.1 % of Greece and comprised 451 roadless sites of size over 1 km2: 389 roadless areas and 62 fully roadless islands. Roadless sites occurred in mountains and islands, were undeveloped (no artificial land), undisturbed (no major pressures, <1 % agricultural activity, low Human Influence Index), and natural (>99 % of natural and seminatural vegetation cover, 68 % of their extent in the Natura 2000 network). They also lay in a wilderness continuum of low landscape fragmentation index. Most roadless sites (302) were larger than 10 km2. Larger roadless areas occurred more in higher mountains and steeper terrains, had a lower Human Influence Index and a better Natura 2000 coverage. Roadless sites demonstrated a buffering capacity against naturalness loss and fires (2.5 times lower percentage of burnt land than the national average) but were vulnerable to Renewable Energy Sources deployment, particularly wind farms (33 % of roadless areas might be affected). In support of a roadless policy we suggest using roadless sites to delimit the strictly protected zones in the EU (and Greece), to map primary-old-growth forests, and pinpoint new candidate protected areas. We strongly recommend revisiting the REPowerEU plan to define roadless sites as non-go-to areas for relevant infrastructure deployments.

Ecological Impacts Associated with the Qinghai-Tibet Railway and Its Influencing Factors: A Comparison Study on Diversified Research Units.

The ecological impacts of the construction and operation of the main transport infrastructure on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau cannot be disregarded. Based on different sections, buffers, bilateral sides, and periods, the authors of this study explored the ecological changes along the Qinghai-Tibet Railway through an integrated analysis of the landscape fragmentation index and ecological service value calculation from 2000 to 2020, as well as the influencing factors of differentiated trends, using multinomial logistic regression. It was discovered that there was heterogeneity among the sections, buffers, and bilateral sides in both the landscape fragmentation index and the ecological service value. It was also found that there was recoverability in the operation period, compared to the construction period. The negative correlation between the landscape fragmentation index and the ecological service value was only significant in 2020, which was not enough to fully explain the negative effect between them. Distinct human and natural circumstances have resulted in different consequences. However, regions far away from the main settlement areas, and with lower population densities, could aid in the simultaneous recovery of the ecological service value and landscape fragmentation index. According to these findings, prior studies may have exaggerated the ecological impact of the Qinghai-Tibet Railway. However, it should be highlighted that, in a location with a delicate ecological environment, it is still crucial to consider regional development, infrastructure construction, and ecological protection synchronously.

Diversity and composition of ferns and lycophytes in a fragmented landscape in Ecuadorian Amazonia

Abstract Tropical forests have been subjected to increasing deforestation, leading to severe habitat loss and fragmentation of the landscape. Studies of various plant groups-indicate alteration in species diversity and assemblage composition in response to these impacts. How theses impacts affect ferns and lycophytes, however, is less well known. In this study we evaluate the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on ferns and lycophytes in lowland non-inundated forests in Ecuadorian Amazonia. We obtained assemblage information from thirteen plots located in gradients of habitat loss and fragmentation (as measured by the landscape fragmentation index: fragindex) and used community and diversity indices to evaluate species responses. We found 3,824 individuals of 55 species. The plot with the highest fragindex value (more than 20% of habitat loss and fragmentation) had the lowest diversity, but the highest diversity was found in plots with fragindex values from 12% to 21% of habitat loss and fragmentation rather than in the landscapes without deforestation. Although community composition varied along the fragindex gradient, species turnover was not significantly related to this index. These results suggest that changes in the landscape caused by deforestation alter the availability of habitats, consequently affecting the distribution patterns of ferns and lycophytes.

Garden Landscape Construction Based on Landscape Urbanism and Dynamic Nonlinear System Thinking

Abstract This paper uses nonlinear dynamic system thinking to evaluate the ecological environment of landscaping. In this paper, the mathematical models of landscape dimension, fragmentation index, diversity index, and aggregation index are constructed using an artificial neural network combined with a fuzzy C-means (FCM) clustering nonlinear thinking system. In the end, this paper plans and evaluates the ecological environment of S city. Through the analysis of the model, it is verified that the nonlinear artificial neural network system combined with fuzzy C-means (FCM) clustering proposed in this paper is an effective method for forest landscape planning and evaluation. The scope and feasibility of this method are high.

Environmental assessments in dense mining areas using remote sensing information over Qian'an and Qianxi regions China

Dense mining areas are regions with relatively concentrated mining enterprises or occupied land, which are also regions with intense economic and resource development conflicts and environmental protection. However, ecological assessments by remotely sensed technology do not consider the characteristics of mining areas. To fill the knowledge gap, we employed seven indexes, i.e., fractional vegetation cover, greenness above bare soil, wetness, black particulates, land surface temperature, iron oxides, and the landscape fragmentation index, to construct the iron mine remote sensing-based ecological index (IM-RSEI) by Landsat data. We chose Qian’an City and Qianxi County in Tangshan City, China, as the study area where iron ore-related industries are concentrated. The results showed that the ecological environment generally deteriorated first and then improved that the IM-RSEI values for 1992, 2000, 2009, and 2018 were 0.5102, 0.4776, 0.4882, and 0.5001, respectively. The mean IM-RSEI values for the dense mining area and surrounding multi-gradient buffer zones, from near to far, were 0.5412, 0.5146, 0.5076, 0.4756, and 0.4563, implying that mining activities endangered the surrounding ecological quality. This study assessed the ecological environment in dense mining areas from multiple perspectives by remote sensing technology. The research conclusions can provide a reference for pollution control during mining development in Qian’an, Qianxi, and similar mining areas.

Analysis of Spatial–Temporal Variations and Driving Factors of Typical Tail-Reach Wetlands in the Ili-Balkhash Basin, Central Asia

The Ili River Delta (IRD) is the largest delta in the arid zone of Central Asia. Since the 1970s, the entire delta system has undergone a series of changes due to climate change and the impoundment of the Kapchagay Reservoir upstream of the delta, triggering an ecological crisis. Wetlands play a crucial ecological role in biodiversity conservation. Most studies have mainly focused on the response of vegetation and soil microbial to ecological changes in the delta, ignoring the dynamic processes of wetlands changes. Hence, such changes in the IRD and the underlying mechanisms need to be investigated in depth. In this study, wetlands in the IRD from 1975 to 2020 were extracted based on Landsat images using the object-oriented method; changes in the wetland area, wetland landscape pattern, NDVI, and NPP were analyzed; and the contributions of natural and human factors to wetland evolution were quantified. The results indicated the following: (1) From 1975 to 2020, the wetland area of the IRD showed an increasing trend, and changes in the wetland area were mainly found in the middle part of the delta near the Saryesik Peninsula. (2) The wetland landscape pattern in the IRD changed markedly from 1975 to 2020. The dominant patches of the wetland in the middle of the delta continued to expand; the patch aggregation index (AI) increased, and the landscape fragmentation index (LFI) decreased. (3) From 2000 to 2020, the average annual normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and net primary productivity (NPP) in the IRD increased, which is consistent with the change in wetland expansion. (4) Inflow to the delta from the Ili River and the water level of Balkhash Lake are significantly correlated with the wetland area, which are the dominant factors driving wetland evolution; and water evaporation from the Kapchagay Reservoir and irrigation water diversion on the left bank of the reservoir obviously intensified the process of lake water level decline and wetland degradation during 1970 to 1985. These results can provide scientific background for making informed ecological protection decisions in the IRD under the impacts of climate change and human activities.

Biogeographic Patterns and Richness of the Meconopsis Species and Their Influence Factors across the Pan-Himalaya and Adjacent Regions

Understanding the potential habitat of Meconopsis, their species richness distribution patterns, and their influencing factors are critical for the conservation and rational exploitation of this valuable resource. In this study, we applied the MaxEnt model to predict their potential distribution, mapped the distribution pattern of species richness, and analyzed the variation of species richness along environmental gradients. Finally, we calculated the landscape fragmentation indices between the five subregions. Our results found that: (1) the medium- and high-suitable habitats of Meconopsis were mainly distributed in the central and eastern Himalaya, the Hengduan Mountains, and the southeast edge of the plateau platform, with suitable habitats ranged from 3200 m to 4300 m, whose most important factor is precipitation of the warmest quarter; (2) species richness showed a hump pattern along the environmental gradients except for longitude that showed an increasing trend, mainly concentrated in the south and southeast; and (3) the subregions are in the descending order of species richness: plateau platform, Hengduan Mountains, central, eastern, and western Himalaya; the highest and lowest degree of landscape fragmentation were in the western Himalaya and eastern Himalaya, respectively. Our study provides a theoretical background for the conservation and sustainable exploitation of Meconopsis in the wild.

Changes in Cultivated Land Loss and Landscape Fragmentation in China from 2000 to 2020

Cultivated land area and fragmentation are two crucial elements that influence food production in China. However, few studies have analyzed the fine-grained changes in both the area and the fragmentation of cultivated land from a national perspective. Using a 30 m annual land-cover dataset with the help of cultivated land area (CA) and a newly constructed coupling landscape fragmentation index (CLFI), this research identified the spatial distribution characteristics of both the area and the landscape fragmentation of cultivated land in Chinese counties and simultaneously analyzed the changes in the above two elements since the beginning of the 21st century. The results showed that the distribution pattern of CA in China’s counties was large in the north and small in the south. During the first two decades of the 21st century, the total CA of China decreased, but the decrease rate decreased from 2.91% in 2000–2010 to 0.41% in 2010–2020; in contrast, the CLFI of China showed an increasing trend, but the increase rate also decreased, from 4.06% in 2000–2010 to 0.51% in 2010–2020. Spatially, from 2000 to 2010, there was an obvious reverse distribution pattern between counties with large CA changes and those with large CLFI changes; however, this pattern became less obvious from 2010 to 2020. Urban expansion, sloping land conversion programs and other ecological protection programs, and land development and consolidation programs were major causes of changes in the CA and CLFI across China. The findings of this research provide a data basis and scientific support for the protection and large-scale utilization of cultivated land, where this information is necessary to ensure food security.

Fragmented landscape generator (flsgen): A neutral landscape generator with control of landscape structure and fragmentation indices

Abstract Neutral landscape models have many applications in ecology, such as supporting spatially explicit simulations, developing and evaluating landscape indices. However, current approaches provide few options to produce large landscapes with controlled composition and fragmentation indices. We introduce flsgen (Fragmented Landscape Generator), a new neutral landscape generator that addresses this limitation by providing a high level of control over 14 landscape indices. The main novelty of flsgen is the decomposition of landscape generation into two steps: the solving of a constraint satisfaction problem and the generation of a landscape raster with a stochastic algorithm. The latter relies on a continuous environmental gradient that influences the landscape's spatial configuration. flsgen can generate fine‐grained artificial landscapes in small amounts of time, which makes it suited to produce large landscape series systematically. We demonstrate the features of flsgen through three illustrative use cases. flsgen is a practical and efficient tool that expands the current possibilities of neutral landscape models and widens their potential applications. To facilitate its uptake, flsgen is available as free and open‐source software through a Java API, a command‐line interface or an R package.