Landscape Aesthetics Research Articles

The Application of Rain Gardens in Urban Environments: A Bibliometric Review

The increasing challenges of urbanization and climate change have driven the need for innovative stormwater management solutions. Rain gardens, as a nature-based solution (NBS), have emerged as a critical component in urban water management, particularly in enhancing hydrological regulation, water quality, and ecosystem services. This bibliometric review examines the application of rain gardens in urban environments, focusing on their roles in stormwater management, pollutant removal, and ecological enhancement. Data from 728 academic papers published between 2000 and 2023 were analyzed using the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collection, employing bibliometric tools such as the “Bibliometrix” R package and CiteSpace. The analysis highlights the increasing global interest in rain gardens, particularly since 2015, with China and the United States leading research efforts. Key findings reveal that rain gardens significantly reduce runoff, improve water quality, and contribute to urban biodiversity. In addition, their integration into public spaces offers landscape esthetics and social benefits, enhancing the quality of life in urban areas. However, challenges remain in optimizing their design for diverse climates and long-term performance. The study underscores the need for further research on plant–soil interactions, pollutant removal mechanisms, and the broader ecological and social contributions of rain gardens. This review provides insights into the evolution of rain garden research and identifies future directions for advancing sustainable urban stormwater management.

Study on the Constraint Effect of Vegetation on Ecosystem Services in the Yellow River Basin

Ecosystem services (ESs) serve as the foundation for sustaining human life and development, with vegetation status playing a crucial role in influencing the supply of these services. This study focuses on the Yellow River Basin (YRB), where we quantitatively examined the main ESs indicators from 2010 to 2020. We explored the trends in fractional vegetation cover (FVC) and ESs, as well as the constraint relationship between FVC and total ecosystem services (TES). The findings are as follows. (1) From 2010 to 2020, FVC, landscape aesthetics (LA), soil conservation (SC), food production (FP), and TES in the YRB demonstrated an upward trend, whereas water yield (WY) exhibited a downward trend. (2) A constraint relationship exists between FVC and LA, SC, WY, and TES, with the constraint line taking on a hump-like shape. (3) The threshold value of the constraint line between FVC and LA, SC, WY, and TES are approximately 80%. Below this value, FVC does not impose a constraint effect on LA, SC, WY, and TES, but above 80%, a strong constraint effect emerges, leading to a reduction in LA, SC, WY, and TES. These results offer a valuable data reference for guiding future vegetation restoration and ecological engineering efforts in the region.

Functional and Aesthetic Factors for Well-Being in Age-Friendly Residential Areas (AFRA) in Poland: An International Comparative Perspective

(1) Background: A precise and comprehensive diagnosis of the needs of older adults is the basis for developing concepts of aesthetic functional and spatial arrangements of public open spaces in residential areas that meet their expectations, termed “age-friendly residential areas” (AFRAs). The primary objective of the research was to determine the needs of older people concerning their preferences for the development of AFRAs. (2) Methods: This research was conducted on the basis of a survey conducted from October 2021 to April 2022, involving 1815 older citizens from Poland, Germany, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Croatia, Italy, Lithuania, and Slovakia. The research aimed to determine the needs of older people regarding their preferences for the development of AFRA public open spaces. The developed research approach made it possible to answer the following research questions: (1) What are the needs of different generations of older adults, differentiated by gender and lifestyle, in terms of spatio-functional and landscape aspects with regard to the open spaces of residential estates? (2) Do older citizens from different countries living in various estates (single-family, multi-family) have the same expectations towards AFRAs? (3) Results: The research results showed a high convergence of preferences among older people regardless of gender, age group, or type of residential estate they live in (multi-family/single-family). Slight differences in AFRA preferences were noticed between Polish and non-Polish older adults, most often due to cultural habits. A correlation between the landscape attractiveness and aesthetics of the estate and the comfort of life for the older population, as well as their impact on the final assessment of the estate, was confirmed. As a result of the research, 33 spatio-functional and 16 landscape factors of AFRAs were identified and ranked.

Carbon dioxide emission evaluation of biochar based vegetation concrete for ecological restoration projects

Vegetation concrete is increasingly being used for slope stabilization in highways, green roofing in urban developments, and erosion control in coastal areas due to its sustainable solutions for enhancing landscape aesthetics, mitigating pollution, and protecting the environment. However, the environmental and economic impacts of different mix proportions, particularly concerning CO2 emissions, remain insufficiently explored. This study aimed to identify the optimal mix proportions of vegetation concrete through laboratory testing that minimize CO2 emissions while ensuring compatibility with plant growth and cost-effectiveness. The vegetation concrete mix were prepared using different quantities of biochar (5 %, 10 %, and 15 %) and cement content (4 %, 8 %, and 12 %) by weight to evaluate their impact on porosity, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), alkalinity, plant compatibility, cost-effectiveness, and CO2 emissions from raw materials. The results indicate that increasing the biochar content from 0 % to 15 % led to a 16 % reduction in porosity and a 92 % increase in UCS of vegetation concrete. Similarly, increasing the cement content from 0 % to 12 % resulted in an 11 % decrease in porosity and a substantial 200 % increase in the UCS of vegetation concrete. Moreover, the addition of 5 % biochar had a beneficial effect on plant growth, however, increasing the biochar content beyond this level adversely impacted plant development. Based on laboratory test results, the recommended optimal mix for vegetation concrete includes a mix of 5 % biochar, 8 % low-alkaline sulfoaluminate cement, 6 % sawdust, and 6 % ferrous sulfate. The analysis of CO2 emission of the materials studied showed that cement contributed the most to CO2 emissions, followed by biochar, sawdust, water, and soil. Notably, the utilization of sulfoaluminate cement led to a 31.8 % reduction in CO2 emissions compared to Portland cement, while also lowering the overall cost of vegetation concrete by 24.7–33.8 %. This research underscores the necessity of scientifically establishing relationships between the composition of plant-based concretes and their environmental and economic performance. In summary, this study identifies optimal mix proportions for vegetation concrete, leveraging low-alkaline sulfoaluminate cement and biochar to minimize CO2 emissions, enhance landscape aesthetics, and ensure compatibility with plant growth, thus emphasizing its potential as a sustainable and cost-effective construction material.

Living lab as support for co-creation of value: application to agro-biodiversity contracting solutions

ABSTRACT In addition to providing private goods such as food, fibre and biomass, agriculture can deliver a variety of environmental public goods and ecosystem services, such as biodiversity conservation, water filtering, carbon sequestration, and landscape aesthetics for recreation. Often, however, the use of agricultural landscapes prioritises the provision of private goods, resulting in negative environmental impacts. To address this imbalance in the provision of private and public goods, targeted policy instruments (e.g. contracts) are required to ensure that public goods are provided at the level desired by society. This paper, which is written in the context of the Horizon 2020 project “Contracts 2.0 – H2020 RUR-03-2018”, aims to present a Living Lab case study in Tuscany to point out possible future scenarios of contractual solutions that could provide the right incentives for farmers and land managers to produce a specific environmental public good such as agro-biodiversity. This paper aims to evaluate the application of Living Labs in the case study, assessing what challenges might seriously hinder the collaboration process and/or the success of the participatory approach. Thanks to the participatory approach, it was possible to finalise the “dream contract” in the Living Lab case study. Contract Innovation Labs and Policy Innovation Labs members agreed on a new type of contract based on clear and measurable objectives decided together by farmers and public authorities.

Multi-Scale Analysis of Ecosystem Service Trade-Offs/Synergies in the Yangtze River Delta

The transformation of ecosystem structure leads to changes in ecosystem services (ESs) and their relationship. However, most research in this area has focused on particular scales and timeframes, often overlooking the significance of spatial and temporal variations. Therefore, we used the equivalent value method to evaluate seven typical ESs in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) between 2000 and 2020: food production (FP), water supply (WS), climate regulation (CR), environmental purification (EP), soil conservation (SC), biodiversity maintenance (BM), and aesthetic landscape (AL). We further employed the Spearman correlation coefficient and bivariate Moran’s I to evaluate the relationship of ESs and their spatial heterogeneity at grid, township, county and city scales. Our results show that (1) All ESs except AL exhibited a fluctuating upward trend from 2000 to 2020, resulting in a total increase in ecosystem service (ES) value of RMB 650.63 billion. (2) Approximately 70% of the ES pairs demonstrated a synergistic relationship, with the exception of FP and other ESs, which mainly showed a trade-off. (3) With the scale increased from grid to city level, the degree of trade-off between FP and other ESs strengthened at different levels, while the synergy degree of among other ESs gradually decreased. (4) The relationship between ESs demonstrated strong spatial heterogeneity, with FP and other ESs exhibiting trade-offs primarily in the northern and southern YRD, while other ES pairs exhibited mostly synergy in these regions. This study provides scientific information for governments to optimize land use distribution and improve ESs.

Optimizing native vegetation establishment in urban soils: Assessing the impacts of organic amendments on specific growth parameters

Following soil disturbances, establishing healthy roadside vegetation can reduce surface water runoff, improve soil quality, decrease erosion, and enhance landscape aesthetics. This study explores the use of organic soil amendments (OAs) as alternatives to conventional vegetation growth approaches, aiming to provide optimal compost mixing ratios for poor soils, and clarify guidelines for OAs’ use in roadside projects. Three sandy loam soils and one loam soil were chosen for the study. Organic amendments included yard waste (Y), food waste (F), turkey litter and green waste-based (T) composts, and wood-derived biochar (B). Treatment applications targeted specific increases in the organic matter (OM) percentage of the soils. A selection of seven native species (grasses and forbs) in a total of 156 pots (4 control soils + 4 soils x 4 OAs x 3 application rates, all prepared in triplicates) was used for the pot study experiment. A significant correlation between electrical conductivity (soluble salts) in soil-OA blends and corresponding percent green coverage (%GC) was found. High salts from the T compost either delayed or curtailed growth. Notably, 3 out of the 4 soils amended with biochar exhibited rapid vegetation coverage during initial growth stages compared to other soil-OA blends but reduced the nitrogen (N) uptake and leaf area in black-eyed Susan (BES) plants. In contrast, N uptake was higher in the BES plants emerging from composts T, F, and Y compared to biochar. It is recommended to minimize concentrated manure-based (e.g., turkey litter) composts for roadside projects as an OM source, and alternatively, enriching wood-based biochar with nutrients when used as a soil amendment. Within the current study, composts such as F and Y were well-suited to establish healthy and long-lasting vegetation.

Ecosystem services in mountain pastures: A complex network of site conditions, climate and management

Mountain pastures offer a multitude of ecosystem services (ES) such as fodder for ruminants, habitat for pollinators, climate change mitigation, aesthetic landscape for recreation, and biodiversity conservation. We aimed at analysing to which extend these ES are influenced by small-scale gradients of climate, site conditions and management – and to disentangle relationships among ES and the factors influencing them. Therefore, we quantified ES on six mountain summer farms in two contrasting regions in Switzerland: the Northern Alpine Foothills (lower elevation, higher precipitation, calcareous bedrock) and the Eastern Central Alps (higher elevation, lower precipitation, silicious bedrock). We measured six ES indicators (forage quantity, forage quality, carbon storage, colour abundance, resources for pollinators, plant diversity) and related them to explanatory factors of climate (temperature and precipitation), site conditions (soil fertility, soil acidity, terrain slope) and management (local grazing intensity, remoteness) in 66 study plots, i.e., 11 per farm. A holistic picture of the complex relationships among these factors was drawn by various statistical approaches: allometric line fitting, variance partitioning, and structural equations modelling. We found a huge heterogeneity of ES indicators and explanatory factors on each farm: the variability within farms was even higher than between regions. Variance partitioning and structural equations modelling demonstrated strongest influence of climate and site conditions and revealed trade-offs among ES indicators: High forage quantity and quality were associated with low plant diversity and grassland aesthetics, whereas diversity, aesthetics and pollinator resources were positively correlated with each other. ES indicators were explained by a range of climatic and topographic factors: High precipitation reduced plant diversity, whereas temperature increased forage quantity and quality; slope reduced soil fertility, forage quantity, forage quality and carbon storage; soil fertility in turn increased forage quantity; the farther away a pasture was from the main farm building, the lower was the forage quantity and the higher the plant diversity. Although allometric relations among local grazing intensity and ES indicators were strong, the direct influence of the management factors measured on ES was surprisingly small: Cattle preferred areas of high forage quantity and quality, and carbon storage was higher in these areas. On the other hand, places less visited by cattle offered more pollinator resources, and showed higher aesthetics and plant diversity. Trade-offs among ES prevent the realisation of all ES at the same place, but heterogeneity of mountain pastures allows to realise a broad bundle of contrasting ES on each individual summer farm.

How Do Plant Landscapes Provide Health Benefits to Residents in Urban Green Spaces? Exploring the Role of Restorative Experiences

Plants are considered important elements of ecosystems and benefit the health of human society. However, it is unclear which attributes of plant landscapes effectively influence residents’ health in urban areas and whether this influence is moderated by other factors, such as stress. This study considers the link between the plant landscape and residents’ experiences and health benefit perceptions. The possible structural relationships between them are verified with structural equation modeling on the basis of stimulus–organism–response theory and attention restoration theory. In addition, the mediating effect and moderating effect are tested via the SPSS Process program. The results indicate that two dimensions of plant landscapes, landscape esthetics/ functionality and vegetation density, influence residents’ restorative experiences and, in turn, impact health. Only the compatibility experience and the being-away experience mediate the relationship between the plant landscape and perceived health benefits. Stress does not moderate the mediating effect of restorative experiences on the relationship between plant landscapes and perceived health benefits. On the basis of these findings, valuable information is offered concerning forest city construction and urban green space planning for the purpose of generating desirable public health and well-being.

Identifying Potential National Park Locations Based on Landscape Aesthetic Quality in the Hengduan Mountains, China

Identifying Potential National Park Locations Based on Landscape Aesthetic Quality in the Hengduan Mountains, China

Research on visual experience evaluation of fortress heritage landscape by integrating SBE–SD method and eye movement analysis

Urbanization has led to homogenizing heritage site landscapes, and the protective measures have become disconnected from public needs. Additionally, the complex and diverse overall characteristics of heritage sites and the uneven distribution of values across different areas are related to the lack of landscape experience assessment. The “subjective + objective” cognitive evaluation and visual perception framework that adopts the Scenic Beauty Estimation Procedure-Semantic Differential (SBE–SD) method and eye-tracking analysis can compensate for the limitations of a single evaluation method by integrating quantitative and qualitative analysis. This research takes the Yi’an Fortress in Zhangpu County, Fujian Province, as the object and examines the visual experiences of different areas and types of landscapes within the Yi’an Fortress. The findings reveal several key insights: (1) Significant differences were found in the landscape experiences of different areas within the heritage site. The visual experience score of the core building area of Yi’an Fortress is (1.01) > the heritage entrance area (0.897) > the residential area (0.841) > the natural ecological area (0.784), indicating that the natural ecological area should be the focus of future protection and development efforts, with a particular emphasis on enhancing the ‘landscape aesthetic’ and ‘landscape cultural’ aspects. (2) The landscape experience scores can be used to understand the reasons for the differences in participants’ experiences of different landscapes. The architectural heritage landscape of the Yi’an Fortress scored highest in the experience evaluation due to its superior performance in terms of ‘landscape form’ factors. The cultural decorative landscape scored next, while the garden greening landscape scored the lowest, due to their poorer performance in terms of ‘landscape form’ and ‘landscape aesthetics’. (3) The eye-tracking data was consistent with the results of the subjective evaluation, validating the “subjective + objective” cognitive evaluation and visual perception framework, employing the SBE–SD method and eye-tracking analysis is a scientific and effective method for assessing the visual experience of heritage landscapes. These results provide a scientific basis for the heritage planners and managers of the Yi’an fortress to improve the landscape environment, better meet public needs, and preserve the unique character of this vital cultural resource. Furthermore, this study offers a new research method and approach for the protection of other heritage landscapes.

An evaluation of ‘pollinator-friendly’ wildflower seed mixes in Italy: are they potential vectors of alien plant species?

Wildflower areas are increasingly used in both urban and rural settings to enhance landscape aesthetics and help the conservation of pollinators, whose dramatic decline threatens both ecosystem functioning and agricultural production. Consequently, today many ‘pollinator-friendly’ wildflower seed mixes can be found on the market. Criteria for the design of these mixes are focused on the ability of the plants to attract pollinators, whereas the identity of the plants themselves in terms of their alien or native status is often not adequately considered. Moreover, seed mixes often lack sufficient floral resources in the early spring and late-season months, which are important to sustain pollinators throughout their whole life cycle. In this study, we analyzed 36 ‘pollinator-friendly’ wildflower seed mixes commercially available in Italy in terms of (1) the abundance of native and alien species, (2) the occurrence of locally alien species with reference to three Italian geographic areas (northern, peninsular, and insular Italy), and (3) the flowering period of native and alien species. Most (83%) of the analyzed seed mixes contain species alien to Italy, with three of them also including invasive alien species. Among native species, many (41%) are locally alien to at least one of the geographic areas. Overall, native species provide earlier blooms than alien species and around 35% of the seed mixes lack blooms in early-spring (March) or prolonged throughout autumn (September-November). These findings highlight the widespread use of alien plant species in ‘pollinator-friendly’ wildflower mixes, which poses serious risks for biodiversity and habitat conservation, especially when sown in agricultural areas. We suggest a more careful design and use of such wildflower mixes, promoting a wider adoption of native seeds of local origin and a greater attention to the blooming period. If properly designed, wildflower mixes can represent an effective strategy for biodiversity conservation in both urban and rural areas.

Changes in urban green space configuration and connectivity using spatial graph-based metrics in Ardabil developing city, Iran.

Urban planning is essential for managing the diverse impacts of urban green spaces, such as public access, stormwater control, urban life quality, and landscape aesthetics, promoting sustainable urban development and urban residents' well-being by integrating green space considerations into city planning. The aim of this study is to use graph-based metrics to calculate the connectivity of UGS across the main municipal zones of Ardabil city over consecutive periods under different population growth rates. Another objective of this study is to compare the connectivity values of UGS in the four municipal zones and to evaluate changes in the connectivity indices at various distance thresholds of UGS patches. After identifying UGS in different periods, the changes in graph-based connectivity indices at various distance thresholds of UGS patches were analyzed. Additionally, the changes in connectivity indices over different periods and across various municipal zones were compared and analyzed. The findings reveal that UGS areas were larger in the past but have recently had smaller patch sizes. Connectivity between UGS nodes (dNL) decreased at various distances over the study years, showing a declining trend in different connectivity indices. UGS connectivity decreased in municipal zones 1, 2, and 3 but increased in recent years after a decline until 2012 across all four zones of Ardabil city. Zone 4 had the highest UGS connectivity due to newly developed urban areas and well-allocated UGSs. Integrating the ecological impacts of UGS connectivity in urban development and design will enhance trade-offs between conservation, public health, and social equity. New urban areas should allocate sufficient land for UGS and parks, ensuring accessibility to support health and leisure through municipal planning. The study highlights the need for sustainable urban development policies that prioritize the allocation and maintenance of UGSs.

Balancing Risks and Benefits: Stakeholder Perspective on Managing Non-Native Tree Species in the European Alpine Space

For centuries, non-native tree (NNT) species have been planted throughout Europe for ecosystem services including timber and urban greenery. Public interest in NNTs has recently increased due to their potential role in climate change adaptation as alternatives to vulnerable native forest tree species. However, opinions regarding the benefits and risks of European NNTs differ. Understanding stakeholder perceptions is crucial for guiding adaptive forest management, especially in sensitive ecosystems like the European Alpine Space. To assess awareness and perception, a structured questionnaire was administered to 456 respondents from six countries in the European Alpine Space. Most respondents were aware of the origin of native and NNT species in their area. NNTs and invasive-NNTs were primarily found in urban regions, with a perceived increase in their occurrence over the past 25 years. With some exceptions, such as Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco, the most common NNTs were generally perceived as potentially invasive. The perception of the invasiveness of NNTs correlated with their perceived risks and benefits on ecosystem services. The respondents who were unconcerned about invasiveness believed NNTs had a positive impact on provisioning services like timber, while those concerned about invasiveness perceived their negative effects on regulating cultural ecosystem services such as native biodiversity and landscape aesthetics. Overall, most respondents were conservative, opposing the promotion of NNTs, even in biodiversity-poor areas. Most stakeholders also believe that NNT regulations should prioritize their sustainable use and management rather than focusing solely on an invasive-centric narrative.

REVIEW – A VALUABLE EDITORIAL APPEARANCE IN THE FIELD OF THE LOCAL LANDSCAPE: LANDSCAPE AESTHETICS IN FINE ARTS IN MOLDOVA

The monograph Landscape Aesthetics in Fine Arts in Moldova, Chișinău: CEP Publishing House, USM, 2024, second edition (first edition, 2021), is a work carried out within the Postdoctoral Program (2021-2022), Strategic Priority – Societal Challenges, with the theme: Morphological stylistics in interior design, architecture, fine arts in Moldova, with the project code 21.00208.0807.00/PD, authored by Angela Munteanu. The paper discusses the issue of the evolution and constitution of the landscape genre in the fine arts in Moldova. The monograph Landscape Aesthetics in Fine Arts in Moldova reflects the periods of evolution and development of the landscape genre through stylistic trends, representatives of different schools of painting, graphics, and decorative arts, and artistic currents, resulting in a truthful panorama of the artistic process in Moldova.

Redes de productores-consumidores como impulsores de la transición hacia la sostenibilidad en contextos rurales. Dos casos de Costa Rica

Successful sustainability transitions are crucial to answer to ongoing crises. Focusing strongly on biocultural heritage, local customs, and traditions, as well as the natural environment and landscape aesthetics, rural regions have great potential to promote sustainable development and growth. This sustainable development of rural regions further contributes not only to local, but also to national and supranational development by strengthening sustainable economic growth, alleviating unemployment, and poverty, and improving living conditions. Local entrepreneurs are continuously included in discussions on sustainability transitions in rural regions as an important driver through their innovative entrepreneurial activities. By comparing two example regions within rural areas of Costa Rica - the Dota and Turrialba region - the role of these entrepreneurial endeavors is illustrated. For this purpose, we exemplify how both regions contribute to rural, sustainable development based on their geographical, entrepreneurial, and collective characteristics. Specifically, the role of entrepreneurs’ specific mind- and skillset, their embeddedness in producer-consumer-networks and the encompassing geographical context is investigated. Implications on the different levels of analysis are drawn in terms of learning opportunities for both, the respective included regions, as well as supra-regional development in a broader sense. The sCoRe project is presented as an exemplary initiative designed to foster collaboration between rural entrepreneurs and academic initiatives to enhance local producer-consumer-networks, and thus contribute to the establishment of sustainable communities.

Redes de productores-consumidores como impulsores de la transición hacia la sostenibilidad en contextos rurales. Dos casos de Costa Rica

Successful sustainability transitions are crucial to answer to ongoing crises. Focusing strongly on biocultural heritage, local customs, and traditions, as well as the natural environment and landscape aesthetics, rural regions have great potential to promote sustainable development and growth. This sustainable development of rural regions further contributes not only to local, but also to national and supranational development by strengthening sustainable economic growth, alleviating unemployment, and poverty, and improving living conditions. Local entrepreneurs are continuously included in discussions on sustainability transitions in rural regions as an important driver through their innovative entrepreneurial activities. By comparing two example regions within rural areas of Costa Rica - the Dota and Turrialba region - the role of these entrepreneurial endeavors is illustrated. For this purpose, we exemplify how both regions contribute to rural, sustainable development based on their geographical, entrepreneurial, and collective characteristics. Specifically, the role of entrepreneurs’ specific mind- and skillset, their embeddedness in producer-consumer-networks and the encompassing geographical context is investigated. Implications on the different levels of analysis are drawn in terms of learning opportunities for both, the respective included regions, as well as supra-regional development in a broader sense. The sCoRe project is presented as an exemplary initiative designed to foster collaboration between rural entrepreneurs and academic initiatives to enhance local producer-consumer-networks, and thus contribute to the establishment of sustainable communities.

Analysing the Landscape Aesthetics in the Urban Context of the Kingdom of Bahrain

Urban development in the Kingdom of Bahrain has been a rapid phenomenon. To overcome the urban challengesand progress in an effective manner, the Kingdom of Bahrain has undertaken several measures for sustainabledevelopment. Landscape aesthetics plays a vital role in achieving urban sustainability and affects human perceptionand behavior in the Kingdom of Bahrain. The residents of the Kingdom of Bahrain have predominantly enjoyed beachfronts due to its geographical location. However, recent urbanisation has resulted in the development of designelements that are not associated with the sea. This research aims to analyse the change in landscape aesthetics dueto urbanisation and the impact of social and cultural factors on it. The methodology adopted in this research includessite visits, documentation, and surveys. The study contributes to understanding the changing landscape aestheticsin the Kingdom of Bahrain. It analyses the effect of social and cultural factors on the changing landscape aestheticsin the Kingdom.

The impact of large-scale ecological restoration projects on trade-offs/synergies and clusters of ecosystem services

Understanding the relationships between ecosystem services (ES) and the factors driving their changes over long periods and multiple scales is key for landscape managers in decision-making. However, the widespread implementation of restoration programs has led to significant ES changes, with trade-offs across space and time that have been little explored empirically, making it challenging to provide effective experience for managers. We quantified changes and interactions among five ES across various stages of the Grain-to-Green Program in the eastern Loess Plateau, examining these dynamics at threefold spatial scales. We observed notable increases in soil retention and Net Ecosystem Production but declines in habitat quality and Landscape aesthetics under afforestation. Over time, and with more integrated restoration strategies, synergies between ES pairs weakened, and non-correlations (even trade-offs) increased. To avoid unnecessary trade-offs, we recommend incorporating socio-ecological factors driving ES changes and ES bundles, informed by empirical experience, into proactive spatial planning and environmental management strategies for multi-ES objectives. The temporal lags and spatial trade-offs highlighted by this study offer crucial insights for large-scale restoration programs worldwide.

Scenic degradation and visual pollution along the Agadir coastline (Morocco): Analysis and management

Visual pollution refers to the degradation of landscape aesthetics, manifesting as visible deterioration. On the Agadir coast in Morocco, factors such as urbanization, erosion, marine wracking, litter, sewage, beach driving, and animal waste contribute to this issue, which detracts from coastal scenery. This study employs the coastal scenery evaluation system (CSES) to conduct a scenic assessment of 40 coastal sites, aiming to describe the current state of visual pollution and inform management interventions. The CSES utilizes a checklist comprising 18 physical and 8 human parameters to calculate a scenic evaluation index (D value), which categorizes coastal sites into five classes. These range from Class I — typically undisturbed natural areas with pristine scenic qualities — to Class V — which are degraded natural areas significantly impacted by human activities. The scenic evaluation classified these sites into three classes. Four sites (10 %) were classified as Class III, fifteen (37.5 %) as Class IV, and twenty-one (52.5 %) as Class V. No sites were classified as Classes I or II. The assessments presented here offer a comprehensive overview of the Agadir coastal scenery and establish a baseline for developing strategies to address visual pollution.