Landsat Multispectral Scanner System Research Articles

A Framework of Generating Land Surface Reflectance of China Early Landsat MSS Images by Visibility Data and Its Evaluation

The Landsat time-series dataset is one of the most widely used datasets for land surface research due to its long time-series and Land Surface Reflectance (LSR) product. Though the United States Geological Survey (USGS) provides Landsat LSR products for later Landsat 4–5 Thematic Mapper (TM), Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI), no early Landsat 1–5 Multispectral Scanner System (MSS) LSR product is generated currently, limiting the research traced back to the 1970s. Atmospheric correction is one of the necessary preprocesses for generating LSR products. However, it is challenging for MSS images, not only because the image quality is lower and bands are different compared with the current sensors, but also because of the multiple effects of other preprocesses, such as radiometric calibration. Based on the Second Simulation of a Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum Vector (6SV) model, we propose a novel framework for generating Landsat 1–5 MSS LSR data of China. Ground-based visibility records are introduced to replace the images-based aerosol optical depth (AOD) to effectively generate MSS LSR data of the 1970s. We evaluate the generated MSS LSR data by the cross-validation of the simultaneous observation of MSS and TM sensors in Landsat 4 and Landsat 5 using Landsat Ecosystem Disturbance Adaptive Processing System (LEDAPS) surface reflectance product as the truth value. The evaluation result shows that the generated MSS LSR data is comparable with the later Landsat TM LSR product, with slightly larger uncertainties. In addition, it shows that the non-atmospheric factors (e.g., the difference of relative spectral responses of TM and MSS, the georegistration errors, the radiometric calibration uncertainty, and image noises) bring larger uncertainties than the atmospheric factors (e.g., the AOD retrieval method by visibility) to the cross-validation results. We apply the MSS LSR data generated by the proposed framework on time series analysis in the regions of interest (ROIs) of the spectral-stable land cover in China for all the MSS sensors. The application demonstrates the potential and promise of the MSS LSR data generated by the proposed framework.

Landsat-based lake distribution and changes in western Alaska permafrost regions between the 1970s and 2010s

Lakes are an important ecosystem component and geomorphological agent in northern high latitudes and it is important to understand how lake initiation, expansion and drainage may change as high latitudes continue to warm. In this study, we utilized Landsat Multispectral Scanner System images from the 1970s (1972, 1974, and 1975) and Operational Land Imager images from the 2010s (2013, 2014, and 2015) to assess broad-scale distribution and changes of lakes larger than 1 ha across the four permafrost zones (continuous, discontinuous, sporadic, and isolated extent) in western Alaska. Across our 68 000 km2 study area, we saw a decline in overall lake coverage across all permafrost zones with the exception of the sporadic permafrost zone. In the continuous permafrost zone lake area declined by −6.7% (−65.3 km2), in the discontinuous permafrost zone by −1.6% (−55.0 km2), in the isolated permafrost zone by −6.9% (−31.5 km2) while lake cover increased by 2.7% (117.2 km2) in the sporadic permafrost zone. Overall, we observed a net drainage of lakes larger than 10 ha in the study region. Partial drainage of these medium to large lakes created an increase in the area covered by small water bodies <10 ha, in the form of remnant lakes and ponds by 7.1% (12.6 km2) in continuous permafrost, 2.5% (15.5 km2) in discontinuous permafrost, 14.4% (74.6 km2) in sporadic permafrost, and 10.4% (17.2 km2) in isolated permafrost. In general, our observations indicate that lake expansion and drainage in western Alaska are occurring in parallel. As the climate continues to warm and permafrost continues to thaw, we expect an increase in the number of drainage events in this region leading to the formation of higher numbers of small remnant lakes.

Characterization of MSS Channel Reflectance and Derived Spectral Indices for Building Consistent Landsat 1–5 Data Record

The Landsat 1–5 multispectral scanner system (MSS) collected records of land surface mainly during 1972–1992. Investigations on MSS have been relatively limited compared with the numerous investigations on its successors, such as Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced TM Plus (ETM+). The benefits of the Landsat program are not fully accomplished without the inclusion of MSS archives. Investigations on the Landsat 1–5 MSS channel reflectance characteristics wereperformed followed by derived vegetation spectral indices and the Tasseled Cap (TC) transformed features mainly using a collection of synthesized records. On average, the Landsat 4 MSS is generally comparable to the Landsat 5 MSS. The Landsat 1–3 MSSs show disagreement in channel reflectance compared with the Landsat 5 MSS, especially for the red channel (600–700 nm) and the near-infrared channel (700–800 nm). Meanwhile, the relative differences for vegetation spectral indices of the Landsat 3 MSS are mainly from −16% to −5% with the median about −11.5%, while those of the Landsat 2 MSS are mainly from −15% to −7%. Cross-validation tests and two case applications suggested that between-sensor consistency was improved generally through the transformation models generated by ordinary least-squares regression. To improve the consistency of the vegetation indices and the TC greenness, direct strategy employing respective transformation models was more effective than calculations based on the transformed channel reflectance. Considering the shortages of the Landsat MSS archives, further efforts are needed to improve its comparability with observations by other successive Landsat sensors.

Discovering Potential Settlement Areas around Archaeological Tells Using the Integration between Historic Topographic Maps, Optical, and Radar Data in the Northern Nile Delta, Egypt

The primary objective of this study is to leverage the integration of surface mapping data derived from optical, radar, and historic topographical studies with archaeological sampling to identify ancient settlement areas in the Northern Nile Delta, Egypt. This study employed the following methods: digitization of topographic maps, band indices techniques on optical data, the creation of a 3D model from SRTM data, and Sentinel-1 interferometric wide swath (IW) analysis. This type of study is particularly relevant to the search for evidence of otherwise hidden ancient settlements. Due to its geographical situation and the fertility of the Nile, Egypt witnessed the autochthonous development of predynastic and dynastic civilizations, as well as an extensive history of external influences due to Greek, Roman, Coptic, Islamic, and Colonial-era interventions. Excavation work at Buto (Tell el-Fara’in) in 2017–18, carried out by the Kafrelsheikh University (KFS) in cooperation with the Ministry of Antiquities, demonstrated that remote sensing data offers considerable promise as a tool for developing regional settlement studies and excavation strategies. This study integrates the mission work in Buto with the satellite imagery in and around the area of the excavation. The results of the initial Buto area research serve as a methodological model to expand the study area to the North Delta with the goal of detecting the extent of the ancient kingdoms of Buto and Sakha. The results of this research include the creation of a composite historical database using ancient references and early topographical maps (1722, 1941, 1950, and 1997), Optical Corona (1965), Landsat MSS (Multispectral Scanner System) (1973, 1978, and 1988), TM (Thematic Mapper) (2005) data, and Radar SRTM (2014) and Sentinel1 (2018 and 2019) data. The data in this study have been analyzed using the ArcMap, Envi, and SNAP software. The results from the current investigation highlight the rapid changes in the land use/land cover in the last century in which many ancient sites were lost due to agriculture and urban development. Three potential settlement areas have been identified with the Sentinel1 Radar data, and have been integrated with the early maps. These discoveries will help develop excavation strategies aimed at elucidating the ancient settlement dynamics and history of the region during the next phase of research.

Landsats 1–5 Multispectral Scanner System Sensors Radiometric Calibration Update

First launched in 1972, the Landsat satellite sensors have provided the longest continuous record of high-quality images of the earth’s surface that are used in both civilian and military applications. The Landsat Multispectral Scanner System (MSS) sensor was onboard Landsat-1 through Landsat-5. In fact, the MSS sensors provide the only systematic global multispectral space-based imagery of the earth’s surface from 1972 to 1982. This paper focuses on the radiometric calibration update of the Landsats 1–5 MSS sensors. The radiometric calibration was performed in both radiance- and reflectance-based scales through the cross-calibration approach. Simultaneous or near-simultaneous image collections were available for MSS sensor pairs and used for the cross-calibration. The estimated uncertainties for this calibration update exhibit progressively decreasing calibration accuracy, ranging from 5.1% for MSS-5 to 8.8% for MSS-1 in the green spectral band, for example. Finally, the new radiometric calibration coefficients were validated through the use of pseudo-invariant calibration sites (PICS). The temporal Top of the Atmosphere (TOA) radiance and TOA reflectance over the Sonoran Desert were plotted with the purpose of verifying the lifetime radiometric stability of MSS sensors. With the previous calibration, the agreement between the measurements of TOA reflectance over the Sonoran Desert was around 7.5% for all spectral bands. With the calibration update implemented in this study, the agreement between MSS sensors is 3.6%, 2.9%, 3.5%, and 5.9% for the green, red, near-infrared response (NIR-1), and NIR-2 spectral bands, respectively. This study ties all the Landsat legacy instruments from Landsat-1 MSS through Landsat-8 OLI to a consistent radiometric scale.

Historical tropical successional forest cover mapped with Landsat MSS imagery

Maps of tropical successional forest cover of the 1970s and 1980s are needed for long-term modelling of tropical forest-cover change, carbon flux and habitat change. Landsat Multispectral Scanner System (MSS) imagery may provide a basis for such maps, but its capability in this respect is poorly unexplored if not discounted. This article examines how reliably single-date MSS imagery may distinguish tropical successional forest. Statistical and graphical analyses of 2043 MSS pixels of successional forest cover, pasture and mature forest cover of Central Panama indicate that successional forest may be accurately mapped, with a maximum-likelihood classification accuracy of 86–90%. Detectable successional cover is unlikely to be older than 10 years approximately. These findings indicate that MSS imagery may provide a new baseline for historical mapping and long-term modelling of tropical forest-cover change that, unlike that of Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) imagery used for this purpose, is amenable to fine-scale spatial analysis and reliable accuracy assessment.

Monitoring land cover in Acre State, western Brazilian Amazonia, using multitemporal remote sensing data

This article presents the use of multitemporal remote sensing data for monitoring land cover changes in Acre State, western Brazilian Amazonia. For this study, the 2000 Landsat ETM+ (ETM+, Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus), the 1990 Landsat TM (TM, Thematic Mapper) and 1980 Landsat MSS (MSS, Multispectral Scanner System) were used. The 2005 and 2007 Terra MODIS (MODIS, Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) images were also used to map deforestation that had occurred during the recent years and to map burned areas that occurred in the 2005 dry year. The ETM+, TM, MSS and MODIS images were converted to vegetation, soil and shade fraction images, using linear spectral mixing model, in order to reduce the data volume for digital processing. Then land cover maps were produced by digital classification of these fraction images. The results showed that deforestation increased by 7100 km2 from 1980 to 1990, by 5100 km2 from 1990 to 2000 and by 3300 km2 from 2000 to 2007. About 2100 km2 of vegetation regrowth areas were observed in the 2000 ETM+ images. The analysis of 2005 MODIS images showed that 3700 km2 of deforested areas and 2800 km2 of forested areas were burned in Acre State in 2005. This kind of information is important for regional and global environmental studies and for efforts to control such burning and deforestation activities in the future.

Chemical Characteristics and Source Implications of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminants in the Sediments Near Major Drainage Outfalls Along the Coastal of Laizhou Bay, Bohai Sea, China

The NASA Landsat Pathfinder Humid Tropical Deforestation Project was to map deforestation activities in the humid tropics using datasets from both the Landsat TM (Thematic Mapper) and MSS (Multispectral Scanner System). In Central Africa, its effort had been constrained by the availability of cloud-free satellite coverage, especially for the 1970s Landsat MSS imagery. Here, we reported the deforestation rate and its spatial variability in the region using 18 pairs of co-registered Landsat TM imagery from the 1980s to 1990s. Of the total classified area of 416,000 km2, there were approximately 217,000 km2 of dense forest and 24,000 km2 of degraded forest in the 1980s. A total of 1012 km2 of forest, including 542 km2 of dense forest and 470 km2 of degraded forest, were cleared annually with an annual deforestation rate of 0.42%, varying among scenes ranging from 0.03 to 2.72%. Additionally, an average of 0.12% (ranging from 0.01 to 0.77% among scenes) or 257 km2 of dense forest was degraded annually. Regression analyses indicated that extensive deforestation occurred in areas with larger forest cover, including dense and degraded forests. Image interpretation also confirmed the hypothesized relationship between deforestation and forest accessibility. The annual clearance of the dense forest was significantly related to the rural population density, and there was a positive relationship between the dense forest degraded during the 1980s-1990s and the degraded forest area in the 1980s.

Tropical dry ecosystems modelling and monitoring from space

Most dry ecosystems of the intertropical belt are subjected to anthropic pressures and climatic hazard. Many are strongly disturbed. In many cases, understanding their functioning, dynamics, evolution, and finally their general state of health, requires repetitive and overall surveys. In this context remote sensing can become a very powerful tool provided we can reliably relate ecosystem characteristics and radiometric information from space. Here, our main objective is the extraction of major ecosystem characteristics, in order to monitor tree mortality and beyond to manage reviewable resources. We developed a procedure to invert the DART (Discrete Anisotropic Radiative Transfer) model. This is well adapted to the environment, because of its capacity of simulating radiative transfer in heterogeneous 3-D scenes that comprise trees, shrubs and soil. It simulates spectral bi-directional reflectance images, for any viewing and illumination configuration. We tested the validity of this approach with a set of ten Landsat MSS (Multispectral Scanner System) images acquired during the 1972–1990 period, over a test site (84 per 43 km) located in east Burkina Faso (West Africa). Available ecosystem characteristics and rainfall data were used. This paper presents the development of the inversion methodology for retrieving ecosystem characteristics directly from multispectral and multidate remotely sensed data. Preliminary results clearly stress the potential of remote sensing systems for conducting sound ecological surveys and the interest of such a model inversion method as a management tool in sparse vegetation countries where firewood, vital fuel for human societies, becomes lacking.

SPECTRAL BEHAVIOUR AND SPECTRAL SEPARABILITY OF ERODED LANDS USING MULTI-SENSOR DATA

A sound knowledge of the spectral behaviour of any feature or phenomenon helps to establish its spectral response pattern, which ultimately allows it to be detected and delineated using spectral measurements made by multispectral sensors aboard different platforms. The spectral behaviour of eroded lands and associated features was studied in part of the Bijapur District of Karnataka State using multispectral measurements made by the Landsat-multispectral scanner system (MSS) and thematic mapper (TM), and SPOT-HRV multispectral linear array (MLA) sensors under near-identical illumination and atmospheric conditions. The spectral separability of different categories of eroded lands was also studied using scattergrams and divergence analysis. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Hydrological modelling of snowmelt in the Italian Alps using visible and infrared remote sensing

Abstract The capabilities of optical and microwave satellite remote sensing for snow cover monitoring and forecasting snowmelt run-off are critically evaluated in this paper in order to improve the utilization of water resources from high mountainous catchments in the Italian Alps. Integration of snow cover data derived from visible and infrared satellite sensors is made with ground meteorological and hydrological information for three elevation zones of the Cordevole river basin of Alpine arch in eastern part of Italy. Digital image processing of nine sets of Landsat Multi-spectral Scanner System and Thematic Mapper computer compatible tapes (CCTs) representing a hydrological year have been made. Digital elevation model, slope and hill shading maps were generated and used in the study. The snow cover estimated using supervised maximum likelihood classification algorithm was observed to fit well for the Cordevole river basin model study when compared to the parallelepiped and minimum distance methods of c...

Deforestation and regrowth phenology in miombo woodland-assessed by Landsat Multispectral Scanner System data

Monitoring of large scale deforestation in miombo woodland is possible with Landsat Multispectral Scanner System (MSS) data. It is possible to assess conversion of miombo woodland into cleared and regrowth areas after the first year of fallow. By change detection, this result adds to the understanding of the deforestation versus regrowth rate, as well as degradation of virgin miombo woodland when exposed to intensive agricultural use.

Spatial variability of images and the monitoring of changes in the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

Pairs of Landsat Multispectral Scanner System images from seven contrasting areas were analysed using scale variance analysis to determine the spatial frequencies present. Specifically images of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) were analysed, which is sensitive to vegetation activity. Analyses were performed on images for each of the two dates and change images derived by subtracting the NDVI values of the first images from those of the second date. As expected the change images were characterized by higher spatial frequencies than the images of individual dates, but this was only marked for four of the seven areas. Contrary to initial expectations, knowledge of the spatial frequency content of the images from the two dates could not be used to infer the spatial frequencies present in the change images and hence the spatial resolutions needed for detecting change in the NDVI.

Satellite Data and Geographic Information System for Land Use Classification

Landsat Multispectral Scanner System (MSS) data in conjunction with the unsupervised classification technique of Earth Resources Laboratory Application Software (ELAS) were used to determine land use/land cover classifications. The Landsat computer compatible tapes (CCT) for February 9, 1976 were analyzed to spectrally classify unique land use/land cover conditions within the Econlockhatchee (Econ) River basin, Florida. The results showed that the scatter diagrams of Band 4 (0.5-0.6μm)‐Band 7 (0.8-1.1μm) and Band 4‐Band 6 (0.7-0.8μm) can be utilized as well as the traditional Band 5 (0.6-0.7μm)‐Band 7 scatter diagram approach for classifying land use/land cover. Both the zoom transfer scope and the geographic information system have been demonstrated to be very useful tools for land use/land cover classification of Landsat data. The Landsat data can be successfully used to monitor the USGS land use/land cover Level I, and the cost and time requirements for the Landsat approach are much less than for the conventional method. Another benefit of Landsat data is that new data are periodically available for updating the land use/land cover information.

Atmospheric effects on radiation reflected from soil and vegetation as measured by orbital sensors using various scanning directions

Ground-measured spectral reflectance data for Avondale loam and drought-stressed and unstressed wheat were converted into digital counts for spectral bands 5 and 7 of the Landsat Multispectral Scanner System (MSS). For dry loam, the differences between ratios of MSS bands 7-5 as determined from space and from ground level measurements were 2.3% for clear and 5.6% for turbid atmospheric conditions. By contrast, for wet loam the differences were 10.4 and 29.5%. We found that atmospheric conditions may cause a delay of from 3 to 7 days in the discrimination between drought-stressed and unstressed wheat. For oblique angle observations the atmospheric modification of ground-measured reflectances increased with angle at a greater rate in the 0/180 degrees azimuth than in the 90/270 degrees azimuth. Implications of this result are discussed for oblique angle Système Probatoire d'Observation de la Terre (SPOT), Mapsat, future multispectral linear array system imagery, and wide-angle imagery collected from scanners in high-altitude aircraft.

Effects of the atmosphere on the detection of surface changes from Landsat multispectral scanner data

Abstract The atmospheric effects on radiometric data recorded in the Landsat multispectral scanner system (MSS) bands are compiled for cases of representative and ideal atmospheric conditions. The effects are expressed as a difference between the Earth's surface spectral reflectivity, a0, and the surface-atmosphere system spectral reflectivity, as, derived from the satellite data, as−a0 = −a0[l+(l/μ0)](B+W) + 2a2 0B + g(μ0)B/2μ0 where μ0 is the cosine of the solar zenith angle, B and W are the backscattering and absorption optical thickness respectively, and the function g( μ0) is the anisotropy of backscattering to the zenith from the direct beam. This formula is accurate only for an atmosphere of low optical thickness. Also, the equation applies only to large areas having a uniform reflectivity, because adjacency effects due to reflection from the terrain surrounding the object pixel and subsequent scattering by the atmosphere are not considered. It is concluded that in the quantitative monitoring of su...

Availability of Remotely Sensed Data: ABSTRACT

A large amount of remotely sensed data has been acquired over many areas of the world, but it is difficult for an individual to identify sources of existing data and to determine coverage, imagery characteristics, availability, and costs. Many federal and state agencies do not distribute descriptions of remotely sensed data holdings to the public. A comprehensive survey conducted by J. R. May in 1978 identifies many sources of these data in federal and state organizations. The U.S. Geological Survey's EROS Data Center (EDC) is the national distribution facility for LANDSAT and other remotely sensed data products. Data stored at EDC at the end of 1978 included over 1,200,000 frames of LANDSAT imagery; over 56,000 images from Skylab, Apollo, and Gemini; over 1,400,000 images from the NASA research aircraft programs; and over 3,300,000 aerial mapping photographs from the U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Department of Commerce, and other federal agencies. Availability and End_Page 505------------------------------ characteristics of data stored at EDC can be determined by requesting a geographic computer search using latitude and longitude of the area of interest. A new all-digital system for handling and processing LANDSAT data is in operation at EDC. The data are radiometrically corrected for detector gain and offset and geometrically corrected to a Space Oblique Mercator (SOM) map projection, using cubic convolution resampling techniques. Upon request, the user can obtain data which are corrected to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) or Polar Stereographic (above 65° lat.) map projections with the nearest neighbor resampling technique. The user may also request geometrically uncorrected high-density digital tapes. When placing an order for LANDSAT image products, the user may select or omit contrast and edge enhancements. Film and digital tape products from the LANDSAT multispectral scanner system (MSS) and return beam vidicon (RBV camera are available in a variety of formats and scales. LANDSAT data over areas outside the United States are available at EDC; these data are acquired by receiving stations in Canada, Brazil, Italy, and Iran and are also available from these countries. Scale, format, and prices of LANDSAT products from foreign receiving stations are similar to those distributed by EDC. Other federal and state agencies duplicate aerial photographs for users on request. Scale, area coverage, and film type vary. The most common aerial photography is panchromatic at a scale of about 1:20,000 and in a 9 × 9-in. format. Some color and color infrared photographs also may be available. End_of_Article - Last_Page 506------------

Detection of naturally heavy-metal-poisoned areas by LANDSAT-1 digital data

Natural poisoning of soil and vegetation due to heavy metals originating from sulphide deposits in the bedrock has been demonstrated at several locations in Norway. At some of these, the features of poisoning are rather widespread, suggesting that the recognition of such naturally poisoned areas by means of satellite imagery and satellite digital tapes might be possible. An occurrence of natural Cu poisoning near Karasjok, northern Norway, was selected as a training area. LANDSAT-1 computer compatible tapes were used to prepare enhanced colour ratio images and to calculate ratios of calibrated channel reflectances. Ground reflectance measurements were also carried out using radiometers with band passes equivalent to those on the LANDSAT multispectral scanner system. Compared with the surroundings the LANDSAT data over the training area showed unique spectral characteristics. These are also indicated on the enhanced ratio images, and the digital data can be utilized in supervised discriminant analysis and unsupervised “cluster” analysis. In particular, the area of the natural Cu poisoning shows low values in the band 7/band 5 reflectance ratio. At present, a detailed, precise numerical correlation between the ground and satellite reflectance data is not possible due to differences in resolution, although spatial correlation of spectral trends can be established. It appears that features of natural heavy metal poisoning can be located with the 0.45-hectare resolution of the LANDSAT multispectral scanner system. The search for such features might therefore be used as a tool in mineral exploration. The current resolution limitation can be overcome by utilizing scanners at aircraft altitudes.

Monitoring surface albedo change with Landsat

A pronounced decrease of the surface albedo (reflectivity) has been observed in an area in the Northern Sinai, fenced‐in in the summer of 1974. Analysis of the LANDSAT Multispectral Scanner System digital data from an April 1977 pass indicates a reduction in the albedo in the exclosure by Δa = 0.06, or 13%, as compared to the outside, which continues to be subjected to overgrazing and anthropogenic pressures. The reduction of reflectivity is approximately the same in all the spectral bands, and is therefore attributable to accumulation of dead plants and plant debris, and not directly to live vegetation.